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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



HUMAN BEHAVIOR 



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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO 
DALLAS • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

I-ONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

A FIRST BOOK IN PSYCHOLOGY 
FOR TEACHERS 



BY 



STEPHEN SHELDON COLVIN 

M 

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, BROWN UNIVERSITY 
AUTHOR OF "THE LEARNING PROCESS" 

AND 

WILLIAM CHANDLER BAGLEY 

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 

AUTHOR OF " THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS," " CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT " 

"EDUCATIONAL VALUES" 



THE MACMILI.AN COMPANY 

Ail rights reserved 



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V* <^ 



Copyright, 1913, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published March, 1913. 



Norbiaoti i|rese 

J. 8. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



ff^r.: /\.'?r{98«1 



PREFACE 

The study of psychology has for a long time been 
looked upon as an essential phase of the professional 
preparation of the teacher. The following chapters 
represent an attempt to formulate psychological prin- 
ciples in terms of conduct or behavior. The authors 
believe that this " functional " point of view in psy- 
chology offers a helpful perspective upon the problems 
of classroom teaching, explaining many of the phe- 
nomena with which every teacher must deal, and 
which, unexplained, tend to irritate and confuse ; and 
providing at least a few guiding principles that may 
be directly appHed to the solution of troublesome prob- 
lems in instruction and management. 

It is hoped that the book may prove useful to the 
large numbers of young men and young women who 
each year enter the service of the public schools. It 
has, indeed, been written with a distinct recognition of 
the immaturity and inexperience which these beginning 
teachers represent. Every effort has been made (i) to 
select the topics that are most closely related to the 
work of teaching; (2) to treat these topics concretely, 
enforcing each principle with a wealth of illustration 
drawn partly from classroom practice, and partly from 
the affairs of everyday life; and ( -() to simplify the 



VI PREFACE 

terminology, without, at the same time, sacrificing 
accuracy of statement. 

The materials have been organized somewhat upon 
the " spiral " plan. The first chapter embodies a con- 
crete case of human behavior, described in non-technical 
language, and illustrating the various factors that con- 
dition behavior and control conduct both in customary 
and in unusual situations. Thus an initial " bird's- 
eye " view of the treatment is given at the outset. 
The remaining chapters of Part I are also general in 
their nature, treating upon a simpler and more primi- 
tive plane the topics that are later analyzed more 
minutely. This plan of organization obviously involves 
a certain amount of repetition ; but the repetition, it is 
believed, will serve a useful purpose in impressing upon 
the student the fundamental fact that the higher and 
more complicated forms of behavior have grown out of 
the simpler forms, and involve these simpler forms as 
indispensable elements. 

The authors have emphasized certain phases of psy- 
chology that have hitherto been treated very briefly in 
textbooks for teachers. Among these are instinct, 
habit, feeling and emotion, memory, and the eco- 
nomical methods of learning. The treatment of sensa- 
tion is much briefer than in many other texts, and the 
discussion of the anatomy and physiology of the nerv- 
ous system has been Umited to the facts of structure 
and function that are essential to an understanding of 
the mechanical modes of behavior. 



PREFACE Vll 

The " Questions and Exercises " appended to each 
chapter have been constructed chiefly for the purpose 
of encouraging the student to study behavior in the 
concrete, and especially to observe the factors that 
operate in determining his own conduct. 

The authors are deeply indebted to Mr. W. S. Miller, 
Secretary of the School of Education, University of Illi- 
nois, for assistance rendered in revising the manuscript. 

The authors further desire to express their thanks to 

Professors H. S. Jennings, W. B. Pillsbury, J. R. Angell, 

E. B. Titchener, to Dr. L. F. Barker, and to Henry Holt 

and Company for permission to use various illustrations 

accompanying the text. 

S. S. C. 
W. C. B. 

February 1, 1913. 



CONTENTS 

PART I 
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIOR 

CHAPTER I 

PAGE 

Consciousness and Conduct 1 

Psychology the science of consciousness — Meaning of 
the term " consciousness " — The service of consciousness in 
controlling action — Illustration of a typical set of conscious 
activities — Important characteristics of consciousness: (a) It 
varies with varying purposes — (d) Attention and interest 
determine its changes — (c) Affection or feeling is essential 

— (d) Consciousness is at a low ebb when acts are mechani- 
cal — (e) Sensation is basal to consciousness — [/) Sensa- 
tion with meaning attached is perception — (g) Imagination 
as reconstructed experience — (//) Memory and association 

— («) Conception, judgment, and reasoning — Summary — 
Relation between consciousness and behavior — Conscious- 
ness is at its maximum in a thought crisis — The problem of 
psychology — Definitions and explanation of technical terms 

— Questions and exercises. 

CHAPTER II 

Behavior and Learning 24 

New situations make learning necessary — Learning signi- 
fies a modification of behavior — Methods of learning: 
(a) Trial and error — (d) Imitation — (<:) "Free" ideas — 
Definitions and explanation of technical terms — Questions 
and exercises. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER III 

PAGB 

Unlearned Behavior 37 

Problem of the chapter — "Unlearned" behavior and its 
significance — Play as a type of instinctive behavior — The 
value of play as a preparation for later life : Groos's theory 
of play — Imitative and instinctive plays: Hall's theory — 
The limitations of play as an educative agency — Curiosity 
as an aid in learning — -Definitions and explanation of tech- 
nical terms — Questions and exercises. 



CHAPTER IV 

Attention and Behavior 53 

Problem of the chapter — Definition of attention — Kinds 
of attention : passive, active, secondary passive — Laws of 
passive attention — Value of passive attention — Law of ac- 
tive attention — The rise of secondary passive attention — • 
The rhythmic character of attention — Variety in unity the 
secret of sustained attention — Attention and fatigue — The 
conditions of effective work — ^The span or range of attention 

— Attention and behavior — The bodily attitude in attention 

— Definitions and explanation of technical terms — Questions 
and exercises. 

CHAPTER V 

Behavior and the Feelings 72 

Problem of the chapter — The nature of feeling or affec- 
tion — Affection as a conscious element — The function of 
the unpleasant and of the agreeable — Affection and effi- 
ciency — Complex forms of affection : the emotions — Char- 
acteristics of an emotion — The James-Lange theory of the 
emotions — Behavior and the emotions — Confused thought 
and abortive behavior accompany a typical emotion — Clear 
thought and definite action kill the emotion — Situations 
suddenly presented may give rise to emotions — Emotions 
may be aroused by imagined situations — Summary : defini- 
tion of emotion — A mood as the residuum of an emotional 
storm — Temperament — Definitions and explanation of tech- 
nical terms — Questions and exercises. 



CONTENTS XI 

CHAPTER VI 

PAGE 

The Practical Significance of the Affective Life . . 89 

Problem of the chapter — Affection and attention — The 
importance of insuring pleasurable outcomes — ■ Pleasure ac- 
companies instinctive and habitual activities — The practical 
significance of the emotions — The value of the emotion 
must be sought in its outcome — Emotions induce new modes 
of behavior — The theory of consequences holds for all emo- 
tions — The affective element in teaching — The emotional 
element in teaching — The emotional element in religious 
education — Moods and their use in education — Should the 
teacher show emotion ? — Questions and exercises. 



PART II 
MECHANICAL MODES OF BEHAVIOR 

CHAPTER VII ^ 

The Nervous System as the Organ of Behavior . . 106 

Problem of the chapter — The nervous system and beha- 
vior—The simplest type of behavior: the amoeba — Com- 
plex behavior requires complicated structures — ^The simplest 
form of nervous system — Complex nervous systems — Pre- 
ferred paths of conduction in the nervous system — The 
neurone as the unit structure of the nervous system — 
The synapse as the mode of conduction between neurones 
— Classes of neurones: sensory, associative, motor — The 
central nervous system in man — The functions of the cen- 
tral nervous system : {a) The spinal cord — (d) The cerebral 
cortex — Consciousness. correlated with cerebral activity — 
Inhibition and facilitation as functions of neural activity — ■ 
Definitions and explanation of technical terms — Questions 
and exercises. 



Xll CONTENTS 

CHAPTER VIII 

PAGE 

Reflex and Instinctive Behavior 126 

Problem of the chapter — Reflex movement as a type of 
behavior — Instinctive behavior as a combination of reflexes 

— Characteristics of instinctive behavior : conscious accom- 
paniment, reflex constituents, mechanical control, depend- 
ence upon inherited neural connections, aiTective quality — 
Types of instinctive behavior: the adaptive instincts — The 
individualistic instincts — -The sex and parental instincts — 
The social instincts — The religious and aesthetic instincts — 
Summary and table of human instincts, with the correspond- 
ing expressions, feelings, and emotions — Definitions and ex- 
planation of technical terms — Questions and exercises. 

CHAPTER IX ' 

The Value of the Human Instincts 140 

Problem of the chapter — The value of the adaptive in- 
stincts — The value of the individualistic instincts — The 
value of the social instincts — The value of the religious in- 
stincts — Questions and exercises. 

CHAPTER X 

How Instinctive Behavior may be Changed . , . 149 

Problem of the chapter — All education must begin with 
instinct — The modification of instinct: {a) The attachment 
of another feeling and its appropriate response to an object 
which naturally arouses an undesirable instinct — The signifi- 
cance of the unpleasant in education — The doctrine of nat- 
ural punishments — Pleasure vs. unpleasantness in learning 

— The modification of instinct : [b) The attachment of another 
response to an object and the feeling that the object instinc- 
tively arouses — The modification of instinct: (c) The de- 
tachment of a feeling from its natural object and response, 
and its attachment to other objects and responses — The 
relation of attention to the modification of instincts — Ideals 
in relation to instincts — -Definitions and explanation of tech- ■ 
nical terms — Questions and exercises. 



CONTENTS XIU 

CHAPTER XI 

PAGE 

Habitual Behavior and the Law of Habit-building . 165 

Problem of the chapter — Habitual behavior contrasted 
• with instinctive behavior — The affective element in habit : 
the propensity — The importance of habit-formation — The 
law of habit-building : (a) focalization ; (^) attentive repeti- 
tion ; (c) permitting no exceptions — The importance of ini- 
tiative in habit-building — Value of motives closely related to 
the child's interests — The significance of the right start — 
The phenomenon of interference in habit-building — The 
"practice curve" and its "plateaus" — The significance of 
plateaus in habit-building — The treatment of habit upon the 
plateau level — -The importance of intense effort in habit- 
building — Rapidity vs. accuracy in habit formation — The 
specific character of habits — The " transfer " of habits : 
(a) through identical elements — {i>) through ideals — The 
limitations of habit — The importance of teaching the pupil 
how to form habits — Definitions and explanation of techni- 
cal terms — Questions and exercises. 



PART III 

CONSCIOUSLY CONTROLLED MODES OF 
BEHAVIOR 

CHAPTER XH' 

Sensation and Behavior 189 

Problem of the chapter — The elements of consciousness 
— The organs of sensation — Definition of sensation — • 
"Pure" sensation an abstraction — Sensation incomplete 
without response — The attributes of sensation : intensity, 
duration, quality, clearness — Classes of sensations: (a) vis- 
ual sensations — The color qualities — Contrast and adapta- 
tion — After-images — The color zones of the retina — Per- 
ception of form involves other than visual sensations — {6) Au- 
ditory sensations — Tonal sensations and their characteristics 



XIV CONTENTS 

PAGE 

— • (c) Taste or gustatory sensations and their characteristics 

— {d) Olfactory sensations and their characteristics — {e) Der- 
mal sensations: pressure, temperature, and pain — (/) Kin- 
assthetic sensations — (^) Organic sensations — The signifi- 
cance of sensory defects — Color blindness and tonal deafness 

— The pl?.ce of " sense training" in education — Definitions 
and explanation of technical terms — Questions and exercises. 



CHAPTER XIII 

Perception and Behavior 213 

Problem of the chapter — " Meaning " as the chief mark of 
a perception — Meanings come from adjustment — Meanings 
are individual — Objective teaching as a means of developing 
meanings — Apperception — True and false perception — 
Behavior the criterion of true and false — Illusions and hallu- 
cinations — Classification of illusions — ^Hallucinations as a 
symptom of mental disturbances — Definitions and explana- 
tion of technical terms — Questions and exercises. 



CHAPTER XIV 

Imagination and Behavior 227 

Problem of the chapter — Imagination contrasted with per- 
ception, false perception, and hallucination — Definition of 
imagination — Truth and falsity of imagination — Reproduc- 
tive and productive imagination — Mental imagery and its 
significance — Concrete and symbolic imagery^ — Imaginal 
types — The educational significance of imagination — The 
child does not often confuse the real with the fancied — The 
world of imagery a privilege of childhood — The world of 
fancy must be limited — Imaginary achievement must not 
replace real achievement — Definitions and explanation of 
technical terms — ^ Questions and exercises. 



CONTENTS XV 

CHAPTER XV 

PAGE 

Memory and Behavior 243 

The wider use of the term " memory " — The narrower use 
of the term "memory" — Recollection — Recall and recog- 
nition — Impression and association — The tests of memory 
and their employment in education : (a) The method of re- 
tained members — (d) The saving method — (c) The method 
of right associates — (d) The method of recognition — (e) The 
method of reconstruction — Retentiveness and its measure — 
The laws of forgetting and their educational applications — 
Faulty observation and its relation to defective memory 
— Distortion and confusion as sources of weakness in mem- 
ory — Suggestion as a factor in distorting memory — Factors 
conditioning accuracy of memory — The function of forget- 
ting — The question of improving memory' — Definitions and 
explanation of technical terms — Questions and exercises. 



CHAPTER XVI 

Association and Behavior 264 

Problem of the chapter — "Simultaneous" and " succes- 
sive " associations — The primary laws of association: con- 
tinuity and similarity — Mental attitude or purpose determines 
associations — • Secondary laws of association : frequency, pri- 
macy, recency, and vividness — Mental attitude or purpose 
determines operation of secondary laws — Emotional con- 
gruity as a principle of association — Summary : educational 
applications — The importance of prejudices — Definitions 
and explanation of technical terms — Questions and exercises. 

CHAPTER XVII 

Economy in Learning 283 

Problem of the chapter — Learning by wholes vs. learning 
by parts — Advantages and disadvantages of the "whole" 
method — The best length of learning periods — The impor- 
tance of recall in learning — The value of the recitation — - 
The phenomenon of interference in learning — The value of 



XVI CONTENTS 

PAGE 

thorough learning — Rote learning vs. rational learning — 
The value of mnemonic devices — The " warming up " period 
in learning — The most favorable rate of learning — Sum- 
mary: a general rule for learning — Definitions and expla- 
nation of technical terms — Questions and exercises. 

CHAPTER XVIII 

Behavior and the Higher Thought Processes . . . 298 

Problem of the chapter — The thought crisis and its sig- 
nificance to behavior — Real thinking always involves a real 
difficulty — Thinking always involves past experience revived 
as "meaning " — Meanings vary with the problem in hand — ■ 
Meaning is fundamental to behavior — Why meanings attach 
to qualities as well as to acts — The development of symbols 
that stand for qualities — The value of thinking in symbols — 
Conceptual and perceptual attitudes — The economy of con- 
ceptual behavior — The judgment — Reasoning and the syl- 
logism — -Both induction and deduction characterize thinking 
— Inductive teaching and its place in education — Educa- 
tional applications : (a) The pupil should be confronted with 
actual problems — (b) The development of meanings is fun- 
damental to effective reasoning — (c) General meanings or 
concepts the most important " resources " — (d) The tentative 
hypothesis : its value and its dangers — The problem of 
" training the power of reasoning " : {a) The importance of 
understanding the methods of logical thinking — (b) Ideal 
schemata of thinking and their development in education — 
(c) Developing an appreciation of the rational method of 
solving problems — -(d) The relation of information to rea- 
soning abihty — Definitions and explanation of technical 
terms — Questions and exercises. 

Appendix : Suggested collateral readings .... 327 
Index 331 



HUMAN BEHAVIOR 



^ 



HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

PART I 
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIOR 

CHAPTER I 
CONSCIOUSNESS AND CONDUCT 

Psychology the Science of Consciousness. — Psy- 
chology is the study of mind. It presents the facts and 
laws that men have found out about mind and about the 
way in which mind works. We aU know something about 
mind, but this knowledge in itself does not make us psy- 
chologists, any more than an acquaintance with flowers 
and plants necessarily makes us botanists, or an acquaint- 
ance with animals, zoologists. Both the botanist and 
the zoologist not only know certain facts and laws in 
their respective fields, but they have organized these 
facts and laws. We cannot become psychologists until 
we have so arranged and organized the facts and laws of 
mind that we may gain a systematic idea of what these 
are and how they work. In this sense of an organized 
body of knowledge about mind, psychology is a science. 

What do we mean by " mind "? At the outset we 

B I 



2 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

may content ourselves by saying that mind is " con- 
sciousness." This is not a definition of mind ; it simply 
gives another word, a word which we all use in about the 
same sense, while the word " mind " is used in somewhat 
different meanings by different people. When we say 
that a person loses consciousness, we all know what is 
meant, — for we all lose consciousness when we fall into 
a sound sleep. When we awake we " return to conscious- 
ness," we " become conscious " of some of the things 
about us. Yet even when we are awake, we are " un- 
conscious " of some of the things about us. These are 
not " in mind." 

The Service of Consciousness in Controlling Action. — 
We are all of us conscious to a greater or less extent 
during our waking life, and we may well ask, " Of what 
use is this consciousness ; what good does it do us ; what 
service does it render? " This is the question with which 
we shall be chiefly concerned in this book, for while we 
shall try to find out what consciousness is and how it acts, 
we shall further inquire, " What value has it in our 
lives?" We might live — after a fashion — without 
consciousness. In deep sleep it does not appear to be a 
necessity. The heart still beats, we still breathe, and 
we sometimes make slight movements. With the first 
sign of returning consciousness, however, we make defi- 
nite movements of some sort, and when we are wide 
awake, our movements become more varied and more 
definite. It is our general experience that movement 



CONSCIOUSNESS AND CONDUCT 3 

and consciousness are closely related, and we may say here 
at the outset that consciousness operates primarily in 
directing our movements and controlling our behavior. 

We may get a clearer notion of what consciousness is 
and what value it has in directing our acts by taking a 
concrete illustration of a typical set of conscious states, 
or " consciousnesses," as they follow one another in a 
day's experience. 

Illustration of a Tjrpical Set of Conscious Activities. — 
During a recent summer's vacation, I took a day's sailing 
trip with a companion down Narragansett Bay to New- 
port. Because of a continuous head wind, we arrived 
late in the afternoon, and were forced to make the return 
trip to Providence after sunset. Soon darkness over- 
took us, but with a brisk breeze blowing and with a full 
moon shining from a cloudless sky, this fact gave us 
little concern. However, although we were quite fa- 
miUar with the bay as it looked in daylight, it was not so 
easy a matter to steer our course at night, guided only by 
the various lights that dotted the shore, or marked some 
dangerous reef or shoal. And so it happened that we 
" picked up " the wrong light and left our course, sailing 
in close to a ledge of rocks, which, with their jagged teeth, 
projected at the half-tide just a few feet above the sur- 
face of the tumbling and surging sea, 

I was at the helm of the small catboat, which was 
sailing easily, the breeze filling her bellying sail. Clear 
consciousness was at a low ebb. I " sensed " the tug 



4 HXJMAN BEHAVIOR 

of the wind and the pressure of the tiller and drank in 
the beauties of the August evening, — the glistening of 
the waves in the glorious moonlight, the dancing of the 
lights on the shore, the toll of a near-by bell buoy and the 
weird cries of sea birds. It all might have been an ex- 
quisite dream, as the moments ghded by and as under 
the splendor of the sky and on the shining sea the small 
craft rose and fell with steady monotonous motion. 

But suddenly all this is changed! Just over the bow 
appears a dark object, lying low and extending many 
feet on either side. In a moment the beauties of the 
night are lost from consciousness, and there stands out in 
the mind one insistent question, — " What is it? Per- 
haps a fisherman's net ? No, it looks too bulky for that. 
Then a watch boat of the oystermen ? " Rapidly various 
possibilities come into mind, and then as the boat sails 
nearer there is an end to this silent debate. The waves 
are seen foaming white as they break upon the reef, for 
this it is that stands in our course. Now we are almost 
on the rocks, and quickly the attention is fixed on the 
boat, as mechanically I tug at the sheet and jam the 
tiller hard over, in a fruitless attempt to pass to the wind- 
ward of the peril. No, this cannot be done ; we cannot 
sail around the rocks, and soon we shall be thumping 
on them ! There is another moment of rapid debate. 
Shall I take the boat hook and run to the bow and try 
to ward the boat off the reef? No, we are sailing too 
rapidly for that. There is just one chance left of saving 



CONSCIOUSNESS AND CONDUCT 5 

ourselves from wreck; it is to check the speed of the 
boat by letting the sail run out, so that the breeze will 
not fill it, at the same time trusting to the wind to blow 
us away from our danger. In a flash these possibilities 
run through my mind. Then out goes the sail until it 
flaps in the wind, the boat loses head, but there is scarcely 
an inch to spare as her bow drifts away from the reef 
and she passes out of danger. 

Some Important Facts about Consciousness, (a) It 
constantly Changes in Terms of Purpose. — In this ex- 
ample of an actual situation we find on examination a 
very complex set of conscious states, that well illustrate 
the problems with which this book is to deal. It will, 
therefore, be worth our while carefully to analyze the 
elements and find what they show in regard to the nature 
of consciousness and the way in which it aids us to direct 
our actions. As far as the nature of consciousness is 
concerned, we may observe in the first place that it 
is in a state of continual fluctuation and change. Yet, 
in spite of this fact, it is always moving on in a more or 
less definite direction. It is going somewhere. These 
changes and shifts in our consciousness mark various 
phases of attention, as it now turns to one aspect of 
experience and now to another. The moving on of 
consciousness in a more or less definite direction indi- 
cates the general aim or end of the whole thought process. 
We invariably " think about " something, and it is this 
something that we have clearly or vaguely in mind 



6 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

that decides in just what direction our thoughts shall 
move. 

In the example just cited, the consciousness of those 
in the boat moves in the direction that the purpose of 
the trip and the interests centered around it suggest. 
It is not anything or everything that comes into con- 
sciousness. The parts that compose it at any one mo- 
ment have a definite relation to the total thought. Noth- 
ing comes in a haphazard fashion. Into my mind at 
one moment come the lights on the shcre, for by them I 
am steering, and my main purpose is to sail the boat 
safely to its mooring. Or again I listen to the sound of 
the bell buoy, for that too has a significance in relation 
to the sailing of the boat. So, also, objects on the water 
catch my attention and hold it, because they have a 
meaning. I notice the red light of a passing motor 
boat and fix it in attention sufficiently to alter my course 
so that there will be no danger of a collision. And 
since my general purpose is not merely sailing the boat, 
but getting my fill of enjoyment out of the day's outing 
as well, there also come into my mind many things that 
have but Uttle to do with the actual sailing of the boat. 
So I drink in the beauties of the evening and enjoy to 
the fullest extent the exhilaration of the surroundings. 

(6) Attention and Interest Determine these Changes. 
— Thus my attention and my interests determine the 
elements that enter into my consciousness, the manner in 
which they work together, and the course that they take. 



CONSCIOUSNESS AND CONDUCT 7 

Further, as has been said, the attention varies with each 
succeeding change and fixes the character of these 
changes. I am now looking at the Hghts on the shore ; 
now I recognize the cry of the sea bird ; again I feel the 
dash of the spray in my face and now the tug of the tiller. 
There are brief periods of relative inattention between 
these shifts from one aspect of the scene before me to 
another. Here the mental processes "let up " for a 
moment, so to speak, before they grasp another phase 
of the experience. 

It may be seen from this brief discussion that atten- 
tion is an accompaniment of all states of consciousness. 
Without this onflowing of consciousness and its fluctua- 
tion from moment to moment, there would be no mental 
life, at least as we know it. We shall later discuss in a 
separate chapter the nature of attention and the laws 
that govern its manifestations. Suffice it to say for the 
present that attention is an invariable characteristic of 
mental life. 

(c) Affection or Feeling is Essential to Consciousness. 
— My total consciousness is characterized not only by 
states of attention; equally fundamental to it is what 
is technically known as " affection." By affection the 
psychologist understands all states of feeling; that is, 
those states that we can speak of as pleasant or unpleas- 
ant, as well as more complex states that are given the 
name of the emotions. We not only recognize the exist- 
ence of an object ; we attach some value to it. It means 



8 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

something to us. We like it or dislike it; we dread it, 
or rejoice in its presence ; and so on. I am not only con- 
scious of the splendor of the evening, but I am thrilled 
by it ; I not only sense the pressure of the tiller against 
my thigh, but I enjoy the sensation with the impression 
that it gives me of my own strength and skill in steering 
the boat through the rough seas. I do not merely see 
the rocks ahead, but I have an emotional state in refer- 
ence to them. They cannot be a matter of mere intel- 
lectual indifference to me, for they make a difference in 
the situation. They are objects to be dreaded. And so 
it is with the whole series of conscious states. None are 
totally indifferent ; all have more or less " feeling " 
attached to them, just as they are characterized by a 
greater or less intensity of attention. Affection, then, 
like attention, is an unvarying accompaniment of all 
consciousness of any degree of complexity. It, too, will 
be discussed in a subsequent chapter. 

{d) Consciousness is at a Low Ebb when Acts are 
Habitual, Reflex, or Instinctive. If I consider once 
more the experience above outlined, I cannot fail to 
notice that certain aspects of it are more vividly con- 
scious than are others. For example, I am definitely 
and painfully aware of the presence of the dangerous 
reef. It stands out in the clearest way ; but the pressure 
of the tiller barely enters the state of clear consciousness 
at all. Notwithstanding this fact, I steer the boat with- 
out difl&culty, for through many years of experience I 



CONSCIOUSNESS AND CONDUCT 9 

have succeeded in doing this with very Uttle thought. 
Indeed, I can thoroughly enjoy the beauties of the even- 
ing and attend to the sights and sounds about me, even 
listening to the conversation of my companion, without 
letting the boat " fall off." I hold her to her course, 
because steering has become for me a matter of hahit. 
At first it required all my attention, because I did not 
know how ; but when we finally *' learn how " we require 
little or no consciousness to carry on those activities in 
which we are skilled. Habit is basal to all learning and 
weaves itself into all of our acts. Its nature and impor- 
tance are to be subsequently discussed. 

There are many acts, however, which are for the most 
part, or wholly, unconscious and which, nevertheless, are 
not matters of habit. For example, if I had examined the 
size of the pupil of my eye before nightfall and then 
again after darkness had set in, I should have found that 
it was considerably smaller in the daylight than in the 
night. The reason for this is to be found in the structure 
of the eye itself and the nervous mechanism that con- 
trols it. The change that here takes place is termed in 
psychology a reflex activity. It differs from a habitual 
activity, as will later be pointed out, in that it is inborn 
andT'iiot gained through experience. Like habit, it is 
essential to learning, and forms an important part of 
our activity. 

When these reflex acts cease to be simple, they are 
often given the name instincts, especially if they are 



lO HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

joined with a considerable element of feeling. For ex- 
ample, when I first recognized the dangerous shoal, I felt 
a shrinking and a tendency to let go of the tiller, clamber 
over the stern of the boat, and seek safety in the skiff we 
had in tow. This was due to the tendency inherited by 
all hving organisms to shrink away from a dangerous 
object. This is inborn; we may learn to control it, 
but we can never entirely get rid of it. The instinct to 
get away from danger stampedes herds of cattle, puts 
armies of valiant men to utter rout, and turns into a 
disorganized and brutal mob the passengers on the deck 
of a sinking vessel. Instinct weaves itself into all of our 
acts, and modifies our consciousness in many ways. It 
is sometimes manifested in intense emotional " storms." 
Like reflex action and habit, it is fundamental in our 
behavior and often determines what we shall do in a 
given situation. It will be fully discussed in its ap- 
propriate place. 

{e) Sensation is Basal to Consciousness. — It can be 
easily seen on analyzing consciousness that at its basis 
there is always to be found what we call a " sensory " 
experience. My eyes beheld the splendor of the evening ; 
my ears received the sounds that came from land and 
sea ; I tasted and smelt the salt spray and my skin sensed 
its coldness. My hand touched the tiller and my 
thigh received its pressure. As I steered the boat, I was 
conscious of the contraction of my muscles and the 
movements of my wrist and elbow joints. This con- 



CONSCIOUSNESS AND CONDUCT II 

sciousness helped me to give the right motion to the 
tiller. I did not need to look at it in order to tell how 
to steer the boat, for these sensations of movement gave 
me the cue. Further, when I became conscious of 
the dangerous rocks, there was a sensation of " sink- 
ing " in the pit of my stomach, which was a part of my 
experience of dread. Thus into my consciousness there 
came, from time to time, sensations of sight, of hearing, 
of taste and of smell, of pressure and warmth and cold. 
There were sensations, too, from the muscles, joints, and 
tendons, as well as from the internal organs. From 
these examples it can be seen that interwoven in all of our 
experiences and essential to them is sensation, and if we 
were incapable of sensation we should have no experiences 
whatsoever. 

if) Sensation with Meaning Attached is Perception; 
it is Characteristic of all Developed States of Consciousness. 
— However, the mere sensation is not sufficient. These 
sensations must be given a meaning before they can be 
of service in any large degree. I not only hear the toll 
of the bell buoy, but I recognize what it is ; I not only 
see the revolving light from the lighthouse, but I know 
that it is a light of a certain character and not a star, for 
example. Sensation would be a worthless thing as mere 
sensation. It must be interpreted to be of use. This 
interpretation is known as meaning. Sensation, with 
meaning attached, is called perception. It is to be 
found in all states of consciousness of any degree of 



12 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

complexity and must be considered in a following 
chapter. 

(g) Imagination Essential to Consciousness. — In the 
consciousness of the moment there is always much that 
enters in that does not belong to the moment. When to- 
day I recall the events of the August evening previously 
described, I do not have them actually before me ; they 
exist only in my imagination. So, too, when I saw the 
reef ahead of the boat, I experienced the emotion of terror 
because I imagined what would happen if the boat kept 
on her course. I saw in my mind's eye the boat beating 
on the sharp rocks, I heard the crunching of her keel and 
felt the list, as in imagination I slipped on the deck. 
I even seemed to experience in advance the chill of the 
water as the boat capsized and we were plunged into the 
sea. Indeed, the situation would have lost a large part 
of its meaning had it not been for the " images " drawn 
from the past, or projected into the future. Imagina- 
tion, then, is fundamental to all experiences that go be- 
yond the present moment and must therefore be given 
careful and ample consideration in our subsequent dis- 
cussion. 

(h) Memory and Association Phases of Consciousness. 
— When I recall past experiences, as, for example, when 
I try to picture how the bay has looked on some previous 
occasion, I am not only reviving images that belong to 
the past ; I am giving them a particular setting in rela- 
tion to a definite past experience. This recall is known as 



CONSCIOUSNESS AND CONDUCT 1 3 

memory. In connection with any experience, I tend to 
recall previous experiences of a similar nature, or ex- 
periences in some way connected with the present. As 
I hear the toll of the bell buoy my mind goes back to an 
earlier trip along the same course, when I had noticed 
the doleful sound particularly, and spoke about it. Then 
there comes to mind a distinct recollection of this earlier 
trip, and many details of it are revived by the associa- 
tions called up by the sound of the bell. Thus the pres- 
ent experience is united to the past by innumerable 
bonds. This ability to call up the past through associa- 
tion gives the present its meaning, for without memory 
there would be no background to the experiences of 
the moment. Later we shall consider what memory 
is and by what means associations are formed. 

(i) Conception, Judgment, and Reasoning, Important 
Aspects of Consciousness. — When I first saw the reef, 
a doubt came into my mind as to what it was. When I 
finally recognized it, there passed through my mind the 
thought, '' This is a ledge of rocks." I do not mean 
that I actually gave expression to this thought. Events 
moved so rapidly that there was no time for words. 
However, the idea contained in these words came into 
consciousness. Such a state of consciousness is called 
2. judgment and the thought "rock" a concept. Judg- 
ment and conception may be considered economical 
ways by which the consciousness of the present moment 
comprehends something more or less new. In a judgment 



14 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

I recognize the immediate experience as having points 
of similarity with past experiences. Hence I am not 
obliged to treat what is now occurring for the first time 
as if it were a completely novel experience. If I were 
obliged so to treat it, I should not know how to behave. 
I should be compelled to act without foresight and with- 
out a plan. But when I recognize that the dark mass 
before me is an object that belongs to a certain class of 
objects called reefs, I know how to act, because al- 
though I know nothing about this particular reef, I do 
know what reefs are in general. It is for this reason 
that I understand that the particular reef is a menace 
and that I must act quickly to escape from danger. My 
behavior in this new situation is directed by my knowl- 
edge gained from other experiences that have points 
of similarity with the present. Thus it can be seen that 
conception and judgment are most important states of 
consciousness in a situation that calls for intelHgent ac- 
tion. Without states of consciousness involving these 
mental attitudes, we could perform only the simplest 
and most habitual acts. 

When I finally realize that the object in the course of 
the boat is a reef, then there comes to my mind the 
question, "How shall I escape from the difficulty?" 
Rapidly I consider possibilities and accept or reject 
them, as they seem practical or the opposite. Shall I 
attempt to sail around the rocks, or shall I let the boat 
drift, in the hope that I may be carried away from the 



CONSCIOUSNESS AND CONDUCT 1 5 

rocks by the wind and tide? What are the relative 
possibilities of success in either case? Finally, I select 
one mode of action and follow it, but I do not act blindly. 
I reason out what is best to do. This places me at a 
tremendous advantage over the person who cannot 
reason, for he is helpless. He cannot see ahead and 
must trust to blind chance to get him out of his diflGi- 
culty. So important are these so-called higher mental 
processes of conception, judgment, and reasoning 
that no discussion of behavior can ignore them. In 
the appropriate place they will be given careful 
consideration. 

Summary of Preceding Sections. — Up to this point 
we have considered the nature of consciousness 
through the analysis of a complex mental state. We 
have seen that consciousness is always moving onward 
and is invariably characterized by some degree of atten- 
tion and tinged with states of feeling and emotion. We 
have further seen that all mental states have at their 
basis sensations, which, when interpreted in the light 
of past experience, become perceptions. Sensory ex- 
perience when not actually present may be called back 
in imagination, which looks to the past and points ahead 
to the future. Past experiences when definitely recalled 
become memories. Such recall is made possible through 
associations, by means of which the present is joined to 
the past by countless links. Sensation, perception, 
imagination, and memory and association are the chief 



1 6 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

characteristics of mind in its more simple forms. These, 
however, are not adequate to deal with more difl&cult 
situations in which conception, judgment, and reason 
are needed. These " higher " forms of mental life enable 
the individual to act in a present situation with a clear 
understanding of its relation to his past experience and 
its bearings on the future. 

Relation between Consciousness and Behavior. — 
This latter consideration brings us at once to our chief 
question in regard to consciousness, — namely, "What 
is its use ? What service does it render ? " We suggested 
at the outset that consciousness helps by guiding our 
movements and directing our behavior. The word " be- 
havior " is used by psychology as equivalent to move- 
ment. This is a characteristic of all animal Hfe from 
the lowest to the highest. In the most simple organisms 
there is but a sUght range of action, and the conscious- 
ness accompanying such action is Hkewise slight, if indeed 
it exists at all. With the higher animals, however, the 
behavior is more complicated, and there are innumer- 
able possibilities of different sorts of behavior. It seems 
certain that as behavior becomes more complex and 
more difficult to regulate, consciousness Hkewise increases 
in complexity. // is, therefore, reasonable to assume that 
consciousness puts in an appearance when it is required 
to aid behavior. The service that consciousness renders 
is to adjust the organism better to its surroundings. When 
there is perfect adjustment there is no need of consciousness; 



CONSCIOUSNESS AND CONDUCT 1 7 

when, however, the organism is not so adjusted, then con- 
sciousness is necessary in securing a better adjustment. 

Consciousness at its Maximum in a Thought Crisis. — 
Now, what is true of animal life in general is likewise 
true of the individual. Consciousness is not equally 
present at all times. We know that some acts are per- 
formed entirely without the direction of consciousness, 
while others require the fullest knowledge for their 
execution. If we turn again to a consideration of the 
situation that we discussed at the beginning of the 
chapter, we can see at once that this is the case. In 
saiHng the boat, many of the acts that I performed were 
done with little or no thought. It required slight atten- 
tion to steer the boat, because I had learned to do this 
by long years of practice. I had acquired a habit. 
Again, when I saw the rocks ahead I had a tendency to 
escape from the boat. This came without any thought 
on my part, since it is instinctive to avoid danger. If 
all of my acts were of this simple character, I should 
need little consciousness. However, when the question 
arose of how to get out of the difficulty that confronted 
me, then there was need of the highest grade of con- 
sciousness. I could not then rely on instinct or habit. 
I was obliged to attend, judge, reason. When the 
situation became difficult, consciousness became very 
clear. In those moments of our life, then, when we are 
in real difficulties, when we face new and pressing 
situations, then in a large measure we throw over 
c 



1 8 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

instinct and habit, attd consciousness reaches its max- 
imum of clearness and intensity. Attention is marked, 
and the rational processes are called into play. We have 
in a situation of this character what may be termed a 
" thought crisis." When a thought crisis arises, there is 
always a problem to be worked out, a situation to be 
faced, a difficulty to be surmounted. If our lives could 
go on in dull, unvarying routine, we should need little 
conscious direction. We should pass a sort of slumber 
existence, our behavior being conducted on the plane of 
instinct and habit. Some persons undoubtedly live 
at this level of consciousess a large part of the time; 
all of us do some of the time. However, if we are really 
alive, we find many things to " stir us up," and on such 
occasions our consciousness is clear, our attention con- 
centrated, for we need to act in an intelligent manner. 

The Problem of Psychology. — Throughout the en- 
tire discussion we shall hold to the point of view that 
consciousness is practical, i.e., that it directs conduct, 
that it makes possible a more satisfactory type of be- 
havior than could exist without conscious control. 
Whenever behavior is at all varied and complicated, we 
shall take this as an indication that consciousness ac- 
companies it. However, we shall consider not merely 
those modes of behavior that are connected with the 
higher forms of intelligence, but also those that exist 
with low grades of consciousness, and even those in 
which consciousness is probably lacking, for from these 



CONSCIOUSNESS AND CONDUCT 1 9 

latter, more complicated forms of behavior are developed 
and with them those mental states that direct and control 
them. Thus it can be seen that the problem of psychology 
is not simply thejmglysis and description of consciousness 
and of the laws that govern it, hut also an inquiry into the 
relation of consciousness to behavior and the interpretation 
of consciousnessjrom the standpoint of behavior. 

Definitions and Explanation or Terms Used 

Organism. — A term tised in biology to represent any- 
living animal or plant. 

Adjustment. — The response of the organism to a 
situation that confronts it. Adjustment may be rela- 
tively perfect or imperfect. In the former case it re- 
quires little or no conscious direction, but in the latter 
case consciousness must aid in securing a more satis- 
factory adjustment. 

Behavior. — All activities of animal forms from the 
amoeba to man, including the simplest movements 
like contraction, breathing, the winking of the eye, and 
the most complex activities like composing an address 
or painting a picture. 

Consciousness cannot be logically defined, but merely 
described and its states enumerated. It is the sum total 
of mental states, such as sensing, perceiving, imagining, 
recalling, judging, willing. When present, it may direct 
or control behavior. 

Experience is that which occurs. The entire conscious 



2 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

life of the individual is his experience. Experience in 
general signifies the totality of consciousness in all organ- 
isms capable of it. This experience may be actually 
existent at the moment, may have existed at some 
former time, or may be a possible experience in the sense 
that it can at some future time take place. 

Practicq^l value of consciousness signifies that con- 
sciousness does something, i.e., is an aid in adjustment. 
It exists to help the organism. 

Purpose is the end or aim of a conscious process. 
My present purpose, for example, is the interest that 
dominates me, the problem I have in mind. My mental 
states arise, assemble themselves, and move on in terms of 
this purpose. 

Situation. — That which confronts an individual, re- 
quiring him to act or to adjust himself. Situations 
increase in definiteness when difficulties arise. A situa- 
tion of any degree of complexity requires thought. It 
exists merely as a possibiHty when it can be met in 
an instinctive or habitual manner. 

Thought crisis. — A mental state involving a rela- 
tively high degree of attention, perception, judgment, 
and reasoning. - The term " crisis " is used to signify that 
the thought can no longer move along in a relatively 
simple way. We cannot reljM^n instinctive and habitual 
modes of behavior. There is a situation present, a 
difficulty confronts us, a problem is to be solved. We 
must wake up and attend to the business at hand. 



CONSCIOUSNESS AND CONDUCT 21 

(Instinct, habit, attention, affection, emotion, sen- 
sation, perception, imagination, memory, conception, 
judgment, and reason, that have been briefly discussed 
in the present chapter, will each be more accurately 
defined in the separate chapters in which they are to be 
fully considered.) 

Questions akd Exercises 

1. What is necessary in order to make a body of facts and laws 
a "science"? Name several sciences and state the kind of facts 
and laws with which each is concerned. 

2. What word may be used as equivalent to the word "mind" ? 
State some facts that you knew about mind before you read this 
chapter. State some facts about mind that you have learned from 
this chapter. 

3. State some important differences between our waking hfe 
and our sleeping life. 

4. Find in your experience of to-day some cases in which your 
consciousness has directed or controlled your action. Can you 
find any instances of action or behavior that have not been directed 
by your consciousness ? 

5. What is meant by the statement that consciousness is always 
moving in a more or less definite direction ? Examine your own 
consciousness just after you have solved a problem in arithmetic 
or algebra. What came into consciousness whUe you were solving 
the problem ? What things can y6n detect afterward -that you 
were not fully conscious of then ? 

6. What is meant by "affection" as the word is used in this 
chapter ? Contrast the affective consciousness when you are play- 
ing a game that you thoroughly enjoy with the kind of conscious- 
ness that you have when you are doing a disagreeable task. 

7. Can you find any part of your daily experience that is 
/'indifferent" from the point of view of "affection" — something 

that you neither like nor dislike ? 



22 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

8. What is meant by a "sensory experience"? Name some 
of the sensory experiences that you have in walking to school; 
in studying a lesson ; in writing ; in eating a meal ; in playing a 
game. 

9. Find an illustration of "perception" in your present con- 
sciousness. What part does "sensory experience" play in the 
perception ? What is there in the perception besides the immediate 
sensory experience ? You might have the same sensory experiences 
when you look at a book as a little child or a savage would have in 
looking at the same book ; what would be the difference between 
your perception and his perception ? 

10. What is meant by "imagination"? Try to imagine 
clearly some house that you pass on your way to school. How 
many windows has it on the side that faces the street ? If there 
is a porch or a piazza, how many pillars support its roof ? How 
many steps lead up to it ? When you pass the house again, note 
how trustworthy your imagination was in these and other details. 

11. Look at some object in the room and let it suggest some 
definite past experience. What "memories " are revived in your 
consciousness? What is this connection between a present ex- 
perience and past experiences called ? 

12. When I first saw the reef, I did not recognize it as a reef; 
the light was dim and I could not make it out. When, after 
some hesitation and careful inspection, we finally "make out" 
what a group of sensory experiences mean, what do we call the 
process ? Can you find an example of this in your own daily 
experience ? 

13. What do you mean by the term "behavior" ? Give some 
examples of behavior in animals like the dog or the horse; in 
animals like the ants and bees. In what ways does the behavior of 
very young children differ from that of adults. Give an illus- 
tration of instinct. 

14. What is meant by a " thought crisis " ? Can you find an 
example in your daily life? If so, describe as accurately as 
possible your consciousness at the time. 



CONSCIOUSNESS AND CONDUCT 23 

15. In going over the experiences of a day, do you find rela- 
tively many thought crises, or does your life flow on for the most 
part in such a way that you do not need to think definitely about 
what you are to do next ? 

To THE Teacher. — The above questions should be used to 
encourage the student to examine his own experience in order that 
he may find there the facts with which psychology is concerned. 
The student, therefore, should not be expected to answer all of 
them in conventional psychological terms. As the treatment 
proceeds and his conceptions become clarified, his language should 
become more exact and his descriptions more nearly accurate. 



CHAPTER II 

BEHAVIOR AND LEARNING 

New Situations Make Learning Necessary. — At the 
close of the preceding chapter we emphasized the fact 
that consciousness exists in order to adapt better the 
organism that possesses it to its environment. In other 
words, consciousness meets a need, and the chief problem 
of psychology is to show how consciousness meets this 
need, — how it helps the animal to act. Let us remem- 
ber, also, that this need would not exist if the conditions 
of life were unchanging. It is because conditions 
vary from time to time that new kinds of behavior are 
demanded. These conditions, although changed, are 
not absolutely new, and they require behavior that 
is only in part different from former behavior. The fact 
that they are different and yet in some respects similar, 
makes learning possible. If there were no change, if 
the surroundings were always constant, if the situations 
were forever the same, there would be no necessity of 
learning after the first responses had been mastered. 
On the other hand, if the conditions of each succeeding 
situation were absolutely new, then learning would be 
impossible, for nothing gained in a past experience could 

24 



BEHAVIOR AND LEARNING 25 

be employed in the future, since the two experiences 
would be totally dissimilar. It is likewise true that no 
conscious life could appear under either of the above 
conditions, since in the first instance consciousness would 
be unnecessary, no change in behavior being required ; 
and since in the second instance no consciousness would 
be possible, the present moment being absolutely sepa- 
rated from the past and from the future. This separation 
would mean that there could be no continuity of con- 
scious states and hence no mental life, at least as we 
know it. Thus it may be seen that consciousness and 
learning rest largely on the same necessary conditions, 
and that what makes possible the one also makes possible 
the other. Indeed, so closely are they connected that 
ability to learn has been taken as the chief evidence 
of the existence of mind ; when such ability is absent, 
mind has usually been considered absent. 

Learning signifies the modification of the behavior of an 
organism in the light of experience. It occurs somewhat 
in the following manner. The behavior of an organism 
may fit well a certain situation until the situation is 
changed in some important detail. Then the customary 
actions are no longer suitable, and the organism must 
change its actions to meet the new conditions. When 
this has been done, something has been learned. It can 
be seen that it is exactly under these conditions that 
consciousness puts in its appearance, for here is a new 
situation and here a " thought crisis " is certain to appear. 



26 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

An example of learning in its most simple form is found in the 
actions of a perch when placed in a tank with a nimiber of minnows. 
The perch darts after the minnows and devours them according 
to a deep-seated instinctive tendency. After a time, a glass slide 
is placed in the tank so as to separate it into two parts. On one 
side of this invisible partition is placed the perch and on the other 
side, the minnows. The perch darts at his prey as before, but 
strikes his nose against the glass. He tries this again and again, 
with the same unpleasant results. After a while, however, he so 
modifies his behavior that even when he is in extreme hunger he 
remains quiet on his side of the partition, for he has learned that 
his earlier instinctive actions result unpleasantly. This experience 
has so modified his conduct that even when the glass partition is 
removed, he remains motionless, while the minnows swim in safety 
near by. If, however, the perch had continued to dash at the 
minnows, in no way changing his actions in face of the new situa- 
tion, we should have considered learning imder such conditions im- 
possible. 

Modification of Behavior, (a) Through Trial and 
Error. — Behavior may be changed or modified through 
experience in several ways. The simplest and most 
general of these is by " trial and error." The individual 
attempts to do one thing and does not succeed, then he 
tries another and perhaps another, so continuing until 
the proper act is hit on to bring about the desired result. 
The trial and error may be quite a hit-and-miss process, 
as it invariably is with lower animals and often is with 
man. It may, however, be directed in some measure 
by intelligence, as when a person goes about by trial to 
find out which one of several possible modes of action 
will work best. 



BEHAVIOR AND LEARNING 



27 



An example of trial and error of the former sort, where the action 
is simply a blind groping, is found in the "maze experiment" in 
animal psychology. The animal is placed at the entrance of a 
specially constructed maze, at the center of which is food. The 




Fig. I. — Simple labyrinth used by Yerkes in experiments with frogs. A, box 
leading into maze at entrance E ; W, W, white card-board ; R, R, red card-board ; 
P, partition ; G, glass plate ; T, tank ; C, K, cells and key for electric circuit 
I C whereby animal received shock on entering wrong passage. (From Wash- 
burn, "The Animal Mind," Fig. 14.) 

animal, urged on by hunger, attempts to secure the food, moving 
about in an aimless manner, encountering here a blind alley and 
there another, until after many failures it finally reaches the center 
and secures the food. If this test is tried day after day, the animal 
will sooner or later learn the direct way to the center and secure the 
food without difficulty. 

This purely chance method of learning is not infrequentl) used 
by human beings as well as by lower animals. If a person is given 
a complicated puzzle to solve, he sometimes employs one method 
and then another, continuing in a quite haphazard way until by 
chance he hits upon the right one. However, he may restrict his 
range of trial by studying out the various possibilities and then 
discovering which will work. An example of trial and error of this 
latter sort may be found by turning again to the situation described 
in the first chapter. When I discovered that the boat was sailing 
directly for the reef, several possibilities occurred as to how best to 
get out of the difficulty. One plan was to head the boat up and 



28 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

sail around the rocks to the windward; another was to let go the 
"sheet" and try to drift out of danger; and still a third, if these 
did not work, was to run to the bow and attempt to hold the craft 
off from the reef with a boat hook. As has already been said, the 
first of these attempts failed, while the second fortunately suc- 
ceeded. This restriction of the trial- and- error process was made 
possible because of intelligent direction of acts called out by the 
situation. If a person who knew little about the sailing of a boat 
had been at the helm, he would have tried blindly, and with no 
plan, to escape from the danger. If he had succeeded, it would have 
been solely by a lucky chance. 

From the above discussion it is clear that the process 
of learning by blind trial and error is tremendously wasteful. 
It must be limited and controlled wherever possible by 
intelligent direction. The adult must do this for himself, 
but for the child a large part of this direction must come 
from parents, friends, and teachers. If the child at 
school and in the home were permitted to act merely 
according to his own interests, or according to the neces- 
sities arising from his immediate surroundings, he would 
doubtless stumble on many things of advantage and would 
learn many satisfactory modes of behavior. This, how- 
ever, would take a long time, and there would be many 
mistakes, some of them perhaps serious. Simply be- 
cause the race has learned largely in this way, it does 
not follow that each individual should laboriously plod 
the same path. There will always be some trial and 
error in all learning, but it is the business of the parent 
and the teacher to reduce this by pointing out to the 
child proper methods of procedure, thus relieving him 



BEHAVIOR AND LEARNING 29 

from the necessity of making many failures in learning 
when only a few are necessary. It must be remembered, 
on the other hand, that we all learn by doing, and there 
will always be a place in the school, as well as in the world 
at large, for the individual to find for himself just how 
things work. 

(b) Through Imitation. — A second method of learn- 
ing that has been of great service both to the race and 
to the individual is imitation. We ordinarily understand 
by imitation the conscious following of a copy. We see 
something that we wish to reproduce, and we set about 
copying it in a more or less definite manner. However, 
there is a vast amount of imitation that is not of this 
sort. The individual scarcely knows, or perhaps is 
entirely unconscious, that he is imitating. At any rate, 
his consciousness plays no directive part in the process. 
This imitation has been called, for this reason, purposeless 
or instinctive imitation. The bellwether jumps over the 
wall and the entire flock of sheep follow; the leader 
of the mob starts to run toward the jail where the victim 
is confined, and the rest, without any resolve on their 
part, do the same; a boy in the school begins to "pick 
on " a new pupil, and soon the rest take it up ; one pupil 
in the class raises and waves his hand ; in an instant all 
the others are doing it, although they may not know the 
answer to the teacher's question and may not really 
wish to recite. 

Another form of learning is closely related to imi- 



30 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

tation. It consists in the tendency of the individual to 
continue the execution of a simple act when once it has 
been performed successfully. The individual instinc- 
tively copies again and again his own movements. This 
sort of imitation has been termed " circular activity." 
It is well illustrated by the young child in his acquisition 
of spoken language. He repeats over and over again 
some sound that he at first utters quite spontaneously. 
This explains the seemingly meaningless ma-ma-mas, 
pa-pa-pas, da-da-das, and other similar babblings of the 
infant in the second half year of his life. We may look 
upon this instinctive repetition as nature's provision for 
that type of learning that in school life we call "drill." 

Illustrations of these three levels of imitation may be found in 
the situation described in Chapter I. We were well on our way on 
the return trip, darkness had fallen, and the moon was sending its 
first rays over the hills on the eastern shore of the bay. Save for 
the splash of the water and the rustle of the cordage, all was pro- 
foundly quiet. Just then the stillness of the evening was broken 
by a ringing, exultant note from my companion, uttered in mere 
exuberance of spirits, a glad "ye-ho." This evidently was satisfy- 
ing to him, for it rang out again and again. The cry had no 
evident purpose save the pure pleasure that it gave. But this 
called for its repetition. Soon I found myself taking up the cry; 
yes, literally "found" myself doing this, for I had not the slightest 
conscious desire to do so ; my imitation was purely instinctive. 
Then my companion changed his cry, introducing a slide and a 
high note at the end. This I found difficult to follow, and in an 
instant my instinctive imitation was changed to a conscious 
attempt to follow him in his vocal gymnastics. 

Later in the evening when the boat was in danger, I almost left 



« BEHAVIOR AND LEARNING 3 1 

the tiller, partly because of the instinctive tendency, previously 
discussed, to get away from danger, and partly because my com- 
panion, responding to the same instinct, had jumped up and 
started for the stern, and I instinctively tended to follow his example. 
A moment later, as I tried to haul the sail close, and as I tugged at 
the ropes with all my strength, I called, — "Come, lend a hand; 
do as I am doing !" My companion, springing to my assistance, 
intentionally imitated my actions. 

(c) Through Forming " Free Ideas " — The highest 
form of learning is found in consciously bringing the past 
experience to bear on the present. The individual learns 
how to conduct himself in a given situation. Later a 
new situation is presented that has elements similar 
to the previous situation, and knowingly he uses the 
experience gained in the former situation to aid him in 
solving the new. He has taken certain " ideas of pro- 
cedure " gained through one experience and intelligently 
apphed these to the novel conditions in so far as they will 
fit. When we say that he has an " idea of procedure," 
we mean that he consciously "knows how" certain 
things are done. He does not need to begin entirely 
anew ; what he has before done comes to his aid, although 
the situation is not the same. This ability to apply 
consciously elements of a past experience to an experience 
that differs in essential details from the earlier one has 
been termed by psychologists the power of forming " free 
ideas." The term "free" indicates that the idea in 
question has been detached from the situation in which 
it first arose and can be used under other conditions. 



32 



HUMAN BEHAVIOR 



It has been held by some psychologists that animals lower than 
man are incapable of forming such ideas. A dog is confined in a 
"puzzle box." He is tired of confinement, and he is hungry. Food 
is placed just outside, and he eagerly sniffs it. Then he tries to 
escape from the box to satisfy his himger, but to do this he must 
turn a button and pull a latch by placing his paw in the loop of a 
string, running over a pulley and attached to the latch. He makes 
all sorts of aimless pawings in his efforts to escape, and after a 
long series of trials and failures at last hits upon the right combina- 
tion and gets out. His reward is the food. Again he is placed in 




Fig. 2. — Puzzle box used by Thorndike in experiments with cats. 
Washburn, "The Animal Mind," Fig. 17.) 



(From 



the box under identical conditions, and again he tries to get out. 
Perhaps this time he does better, because of his previous experience. 
At any rate, sooner or later he learns to escape from his confinement 
in a few seconds, effecting his release with no difficulty. Now the 
combination on the box is changed. The button is replaced by a 
bolt ; the string is removed from the latch, which is now so arranged 
that it must be pushed up from below. The animal is "all at 
sea." He must begin again and master the situation anew, and he 



BEHAVIOR AND LEARNING 33 

does this in the same aimless way as before, for he has not been able 
to "abstract" any idea of procedure from his previous experience 
to apply to the new problem that he must work out. 

If a hirnian being were placed in an analogous position, he woiUd 
probably proceed in a different manner in the face of the changed 
situation. He has learned to pick a complicated lock ; perhaps 
in the first instance he went about the task in a quite aimless way. 
Like the animal, he may have finally succeeded purely by a lucky 
stroke. However, as he becomes more perfect in the manipula- 
tion of this particular lock, he gradually acquires the notion of 
"how it is done." This notion or idea he can recall to conscious- 
ness at a later time. Hence, when he is given another lock of a 
somewhat different make, he sits down and "studies it out" in 
the light of his previous experience. In this way he greatly 
shortens the time of picking the second lock. As he has wider 
and wider experience with locks, he gains greater facility in opening 
them. The most complicated safety locks are now no longer a 
mystery, and he may even be able to open the bank safe, the com- 
bination to which has been lost. On the other hand, the dog might 
be "tried out" with all sorts of puzzle boxes and still never get an 
"idea of procedure" that would apply to such boxes in general. 
In other words, he cannot take the essential method out of its orig- 
inal setting, and hold it in consciousness as a "free idea." 

Let us suppose for the moment that in the danger con- 
fronting the boat as it sailed toward the reef, we had 
been unable intelligently to apply our past experience 
to the immediate situation. We had never been in the 
difficulty that now confronted us. It had many new 
features. However, we had handled boats, and we knew 
of certain possibilities of action. These were general 
ideas that we had gained from all sorts of circumstances, 
and rapidly and consciously we recalled them to con- 



34 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

sciousness in the effort to escape from the pressing danger. 
We had little time for simple trial and error. A mistake 
might prove fatal. We were obliged to " think," and 
we could do this only in terms of general ideas gained 
from our past experience. It was lucky for us that 
some of these at least had been freed from the particular 
situations in which they had arisen and were now at our 
service in the emergency that confronted us. 

Trial and Error can be Reduced but not Eliminated. — 
What has just been said emphasizes the importance of 
learning by gaining general notions or ideas of procedure. 
There will never come a time when the process of trial 
and error can be entirely eliminated from our behavior. 
It must always form a substantial part of our learning. 
Imitation, too, both intentional and instinctive, is both 
necessary and desirable. Yet if the human race were 
limited to these two methods of learning, all higher forms 
of intellectual life, all important social advancement, 
would be retarded for centuries, perhaps rendered for- 
ever impossible. There would be no place for deliberation, 
no weighing of possibilities, no argument as to proper 
methods of conduct. Slowly and laboriously through 
the maze of the world, with its millions of blind alleys, 
man would move about. The fortunate discoveries of 
one generation might be transmitted through imitation 
to the next, and so all would not be lost ; and yet with 
what infinite pains and at what a cost advance would be 
achieved ! 



behavior and learning 35 

Definitions and Explanation of Terms Used 

Learning. — The modification of behavior due to 
individual experience. Because the individual is con- 
fronted by new situations he must modify his behavior 
to suit these situations. Such a modification must be 
acquired gradually ; this acquisition is learning. 

Trial and error. — This term is appHed to the attempts 
of the organism to adjust itself to a situation that pre- 
sents novel features, when such an attempt is made with- 
out a definite idea as to what the result will be. One 
means is tried and then another, until the proper adjust- 
ment is secured. Trial and error may be a completely 
bhnd, hit-and-miss procedure, or it may in part be con- 
trolled by consciousness. 

Imitation. — The intentional or unintentional copying 
of the behavior of one or more individuals by another. 
The term "behavior" is used here in its widest sense, 
and indicates not only specific acts, but also the prod- 
ucts of such acts. For example, the movements made 
in writing are to be considered as acts. The result is 
the product of these acts. Either the acts, or the 
product, or both may be copied. 

Free ideas. — Notions of procedure taken from one 
situation and capable of being applied to other situations 
differing in some measure from the first. The term 
" free " is used to signify that the idea in question sepa- 
rates itself from the situation in which 'it was originally 



36 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

found, and thus is available for application to other 
situations. 

Questions and Exercises 

1. In what way is the term "learning" used in this chapter? 
How does this differ from the way in which you have been accus- 
tomed to use the term ? 

2. When we "learn" a lesson in grammar, is our conduct or 
behavior modified in any way? How may "learning" history 
modify conduct? Learning arithmetic? Learning spelling? 
Learning physiology? 

3. What is the relation of consciousness to learning? How 
could you judge whether an animal possessed consciousness ? 

4. Find in your own experience an example of the " trial- and- 
error" method of learning? Why is this sometimes called the 
" blundering " method ? Under what conditions might this method 
be employed in the school ? 

5. What is the distinction between instinctive imitation and 
purposive or intentional imitation? Illustrate from your own 
experience. 

6. What is meant by the " circular reaction " ? Why has it been 
termed "Nature's method of drill" ? 

7. What is meant by learning through "ideas of method"? 
Illustrate from your own experience. In what sense are these 
ideas of method "free" ? Watch the behavior of a dog or a horse, 
and see whether you can find any evidence that these " free ideas " 
are utilized. 

8. In what sense does " trial and error" still persist, even though 
"free ideas" are utilized? 

9. Illustrate the use of " trial and error " when combined with 
intentional imitation in such subjects as writing, drawing, and 
manual training. 



CHAPTER III 

UNLEARNED BEHAVIOR 

In the two preceding chapters the practical signifi- 
cance of consciousness has been emphasized, — how it 
appears in the process of learning and how it is made 
necessary because the individual is confronted from time 
to time with new situations which must be responded 
to in new ways. It would be a mistake, however, to 
assume that all learning is conditioned by immediate 
practical necessities. It is true that the animal never 
attempts to overcome a diflficulty by the process of trial 
and error unless that difficulty is actually present and 
demands instant attention ; conscious or purposive 
imitation arises in response to a felt need of acquiring 
an adjustment either entirely absent, or imperfectly 
present ; and surely the higher processes of intelligence 
are employed for the purpose of solving problems 
or overcoming obstacles. Yet, as we have already 
seen, instinctive imitation may occur when there is 
no pressing necessity of action. The sheep that imi- 
tate their leader might, perhaps, just as well stay on 
the other side of the wall ; at least the necessity of their 
behavior is not a necessity for them, i.e. they do not 
recognize it; the mob that blindly follow at the sug- 

37 



38 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

gestion of one of their number might better disperse 
and return to their homes ; the babbhngs of the infant, 
the repetitions of his own vocalizations, serve no immedi- 
ate practical purpose. 

" Unlearned " Behavior and its Significance. — We 
have, then, in these instinctive and unintentional tend- 
encies to imitate, illustrations of an important principle 
of learning. Certain actions that are either immedi- 
ately or ultimately necessary for adequate adjustment, 
but the necessity for which is not at the time felt by 
the organism, are provided by nature as a means of 
better suiting the organism to the conditions under 
which it must Hve. Instinctive imitation in the early 
stages of development is beneficial. Its value may never 
be recognized by the individual who imitates, yet with- 
out this tendency the individual would be seriously 
out of adjustment on many occasions. 

Instinctive imitation may be of practical significance 
for behavior in two different ways. First, it may be of 
immediate benefit. When one person starts back to 
avoid an approaching danger and others instinctively 
follow his action without knowing why, all are at once 
benefited thereby. In the second place, this type of 
imitation may be of value, not for the immediate situa- 
tion, but because it starts a set of useful acts that will 
later be serviceable. This latter principle is particularly 
well illustrated by the self-imitation of the infant, pre- 
viously discussed. The vocalizations of the Httle child 



UNLEARNED BEHAVIOR 39 

for the time being serve no useful purpose, yet through 
them he gradually gains a stock of sounds and a control 
over his voice that are to be of immense benefit in his 
acquisition of speech. Were it not for these beginnings, 
seemingly without value, and certainly of no immediate 
practical significance for the child, he would never learn 
to talk. 

When I first learned to sail a boat, there were many things that I 
purposely acquired under the spur of an immediate necessity. Their 
recognized value made me learn them. I remember in particular 
that this was true in regard to the use of the "centerboard," and 
I was in imminent danger of upsetting several times before I finally 
knew just what to do with it. I finally learned under what condi- 
tions to lower it and under what conditions to raise it. The same 
was true about the unfurling and the reefing of the sail, the hoisting 
and the lowering of the "peak, " and so on. Yet I learned the value 
of many things which I did not at the time recognize and quite with- 
out any purpose to learn, as it now seems to me. Some of these were 
acquired through instinctively following the example of others, 
when they were sailing the boat. I did things that they did un- 
thinkingly and never knowing exactly why. For example, one 
of these was the proper way to "come about" and stand off on 
another tack. I am sure I was never instructed in this, nor do I 
remember trying to follow the example of others in the matter. 
I did not knowingly learn the right way of handling the boat in 
this respect. I simply "drank it in," so to speak, and yet what 
could be of more practical significance in seamanship ? Of course, 
I might have learned this particular detail in some other way, as, 
for example, by being told definitely by others, or, after "jibing" 
several times in a stiff wind and nearly losing the mast, by being 
impressed with the necessity of coming about in the proper way. 
The point is, however, that while I did not learn this because I 



40 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

had to at the moment, its practical value was for this reason 
none the less. 

Play as a Type of Instinctive Behavior. — The ac- 
quisition by the child of spoken language in its initial 
stages, as has been said, is an admirable example of 
learning in advance of any necessity that is actually 
present in the environment. Not only are the babblings 
of the infant of no significance to him ; they are further- 
more of no immediate practical value. They do not 
bring him into better relations with his surroundings ; 
they give no information as to his needs; they satisfy 
no demands. These instinctive vocaUzations may be 
regarded as a sort of play, since they are quite spon- 
taneous and performed with no other purpose than the 
immediate satisfaction that the activity itself affords. 
They, therefore, naturally bring us to the question of 
play and its value in the process of learning. 

Play may he considered as a series of more or less re- 
lated activities that are performed quite spontaneously and 
for no other reason than the mere satisfaction that these ac- 
tivities yield. Play differs from work, not in the obstacles 
surmounted nor in the amount of energy expended, but in 
the spirit in which it is done. When the immortal Tom 
Sawyer started out to whitewash his fence, it was work for 
him. He went about his task with reluctance ; he did not 
want to do it. But he made the onlooking boys think it was 
a holiday pastime, and they took up the job in the spirit 
of fun. For them, then, the task was play. It was just 



UNLEARNED BEHAVIOR 4 1 

the same set of activities that it was for Tom. It was 
their attitude toward the activities, however, that made 
them different, — that turned them from work to play. 

The Value of Play as Preparation for Later Life : 
Groos's Theory. — For a long time the real significance 
and value of play were not understood. Because it was 
mere enjoyment, pure fun, it was regarded as trivial 
and even unworthy by our Puritan ancestors, and there 
was Httle place for it in the home and none in the school. 
In those days it would have been a rash person who 
would have advocated it as a means of education. 
Even when play was not regarded as particularly undesi- 
rable, it was generally considered as quite unimportant, 
the mere expression of animal spirits and excess energy 
of the individual. Thus it happened that no one knew 
just what to do with play. Considered either as a neces- 
sary evil, at the most only to be tolerated, or as merely 
the indication of vitality and excellent spirits, no real 
place was found for it in the world of serious endeavor. 
The discovery by Karl Groos that play was actually a 
preparation for the business of later life was almost revo- 
lutionary from the standpoint of educational theory and 
practice. 

This new theory in regard to the meaning of play at 
once gives it a place of high importance in the processes 
of learning. Watch the kitten as it runs after its tail, 
or, hiding behind a chair, springs at the rubber ball on the 
floor, or knocks about a spool of thread ; see the puppy 



\. 



42 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

as it growls and barks at some meaningless object, or 
as it engages in a mock encounter with its mother or 
brother. In these activities you can without difficulty 
recognize many acts that at maturity will be useful to 
these animals ; for they must hunt and fight if they are 
to survive. 

Of similar significance in the human race are the hid- 
ing and stalking plays, such games as " hide-and-seek," 
" puss-in-the-corner," and " prisoner's base." While 
most of the activities exercised by these games have lost 
their original value in civilized communities, they might 
serve as an excellent preparation for war and hunting, 
the chief business of the savage. Of more importance 
at the present time in the preparation for life are such 
games as playing store and house, and, among girls, the 
doll plays. The last named may be regarded as the 
instinctive expression of the maternal instinct. 

Imitative and Instinctive Plays : Hall's Theory. — 
It is to be borne in mind that, while such plays as those 
above indicated have as their basis a deep-seated instinct, 
they are not spontaneous to the same degree as are the 
plays of animals. Children's games are usually more or 
less organized in their character ; they are to an extent 
conventional and imitative ; they are handed down from 
generation to generation, the younger children copying the 
older either purposely or unintentionally. There are, 
however, children's plays that are less highly organized 
and which more closely correspond to the play of an- 



UNLEARNED BEHAVIOR 43 

imals. Examples of these are the aimless shouting, 
running, and tussling of little children. 

Since such plays as these are of no particular use for 
the adult in civilized communities, President G. Stanley 
Hall has advanced the theory that the purely spon- 
taneous plays of childhood are to be considered as ac- 
tivities that, while wholesome and desirable, merely 
represent at present certain impulses that were neces- 
sary to the training of the young under primitive con- 
ditions, but which must now be considered as mere sur- 
vivals of the past, as " vestigial organs of the soul," to 
use Dr. Hall's picturesque expression. Some of these, 
like teasing and bullying and fighting, may, perhaps, be 
worse than useless at present. They are survivals of 
the brute stage of human Hf e ; Uke the vermiform appen- 
dix, they are troublesome, but must be reckoned with. 
Dr. Hall holds that such barbarous behavior should not 
be too suddenly repressed. By giving vent in play to 
these savage impulses, the child frees himself from them 
in a relatively harmless manner. If, however, these 
tendencies are too rigorously and suddenly checked, the 
instincts behind them may. Dr. Hall says, break out 
in later childhood or in adult Hfe, with serious results. 
Free play, therefore, even though it be crude and per- 
haps somewhat savage in character, should be permitted 
within certain bounds. 

Nevertheless, the theory that the child is purely a little savage 
may be carried to extremes, as it doubtless has been in certain 



44 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

quarters. Although "hazing" the new pupil may be quite normal, 
the teacher must not allow the life of the unfortunate child 
to be made utterly miserable on this accoimt. An occasional 
"tussle" in the schoolyard is a "natural" thing; yet the principal 
cannot permit fighting to become general in the school. We 
should not, on the one hand, regard with too much concern these 
savage tendencies in boys ; yet on the other we must, as sensible 
persons, recognize the fact that we are living in a civilized commu- 
nity and that both children and adults must conform to its demands 
in a reasonable way. 

While many of the spontaneous plays of childhood are either 
valueless or worse than useless as a preparation for life under 
modern conditions, we must recognize the fact that play, a purely 
spontaneous and aimless activity as far as the individual is con- 
cerned, may be of the greatest practical significance, if properly 
utilized and directed. Play is no longer to be considered as some- 
thing trivial and unworthy. One of the greatest achievements of 
the "new education " is the discovery that the play spirit has a place 
even in the schoolroom. If the child performs his task, not as a 
task, but because he likes to, he accomplishes more in the end than 
if he is spurred on to it by hope of high marks or fear of punishment. 
When there is pleasure in the work, when it becomes to an extent 
play, the whole tone of the schoolroom is raised. Pupils stay in 
school longer and do better work when there is a certain amount 
of pleasure that comes merely from the work itself. 

The Limitations of Play as an Educative Agency. — 

However, like many other good things, this idea of play 
in school has been carried too far by many enthusiasts. 
It is true that the teacher should make the school ac- 
tivities as pleasant as possible, but he should not avoid 
the essential work or make the tasks too easy simply to 
please the child. It is not true that the child should never 



it 

ri V I UNLEARNED BEHAVIOR 45 

he forced to do anything that he does not like. He is to be 
prepared in the school for Hfe. That is why he is being 
educated. There are many things that he must know 
if he is to get on. He may not like number work and 
spelling, but we are not for that reason to allow him to 
grow up in ignorance of these elements of knowledge. 
Further, not only is it necessary to teach the child to 
do certain things that are valuable on the content side 
of learning, it is also desirable to teach him the value of 
sacrificing immediate for remote ends. He must do 
many things in adult life, not because he likes these 
things, but because the doing of them is bound up with 
other things that he wants. The mother may not like 
the drudgery and routine of the household, but she does 
value an orderly and comfortable home; the business 
man may not care about adding his accounts, but he 
does wish his business to be successful. Certain immedi- 
ate tendencies must be held in check ; we must keep our 
eyes on the " future desirable " as well as have regard 
for the " present agreeable." 

Both in the school and in life, then, we should foster 
jthe play spirit whenever possible ; we should recognize 
that anything done is better done when there is joy in the 
doing ; we should, however, never sacrifice the ultimately 
valuable for that which may give us pleasure for the 
moment, but which is in the long run of slight signi- 
ficance. The animal acts only under the spur of im- 
mediate compulsion. It is the chief distinction of the 



4.6 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

human race that it is able to keep an eye on the future ; 
to sacrifice the immediate for the remote end, — and this 
is work. Let those who will, advocate the " return to 
nature," to that state of paradise where all did just as 
the spirit prompted, without thought, without care. 
Let us remember, however, that the human race has 
been ascending through countless ages from this state 
of animal contentment to a higher plane of thought and 
endeavor. If we wish to go back, we must accept the 
consequences and live as the brute Kves. 

Not only is the play spirit, when held within reason- 
able bounds, a most valuable attitude for learning, but 
the organization of certain play activities in the school 
may be made of service in indirect instruction. Chil- 
dren in the kindergarten may, for example, learn essen- 
tial facts about color, number, and form, by playing 
with blocks, balls, and similar toys. In the more for- 
mal instruction of the elementary school, similar devices 
may be employed to advantage to teach indirectly im- 
portant facts and principles. Such devices naturally 
suggest themselves, particularly in geography and na- 
ture study. The sand pile may be used to represent 
mountains, the configuration of continents, the nature 
of river systems, and so on ; through the cultivation of 
the school garden and the observation of household pets 
and of animals in the " Zoo," valuable information may 
be obtained in regard to natural history. In the same 
way the use of charts, lantern sHdes, the hand stereo- 



UNLEARNED BEHAVIOR 47 

scope, and, above all, the moving picture may, as almost 
pure play activities, yield much valuable information 
about school subjects. 

There is, however, a danger here that should be pointed 
out. These various free activities and entertaining oq u- 
pations and amusements should be utilized in fhe 
formal work of the school only with a clear idea both as 
to methods employed and as to results to be obtaim i. 
If you send the children to the " Zoo " or the museun, 
you should send them with an idea of finding out some- 
thing of particular importance for the school work in 
regard to the animals and specimens on exhibiticn. 
They are not only to see; they are to think as well, i he 
examination of stereoscopic slides and the exhibition of 
moving pictures are excellent forms of entertainment for 
children and for adults as well. We could keep our 
schools and our churches too, full in this way. Pictures 
are more interesting than the facts of geology or the hopes 
of a future Ufe. But in education they are not 1,0 be 
used as forms of entertainment solely ; they are to be 
employed to illustrate important and essential facts. 
If the school is studying about the mode of life among 
the Eskimos of Labrador, let the children see the ste- 
reograms that illustrate the customs of these tribes ; if 
we desire to bring home a clear-cut moral lesson in 
regard to the value of kindness, let us exhibit a film 
planned with this distinct purpose in view and executed 
by players competent to convey the lesson. To permit 



48 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

such exhibitions without clear ideas as to what is to 
be taught and how to teach it, and merely for the 
purpose of entertainment, is to turn the school and the 

! church into vaudeville theaters, when they should be 

! 

I places of instruction and houses of worship. 

Curiosity as an Aid in Learning. — What is true of 

play and instinctive imitation as means of learning beyond 

the immediately recognized necessities of the situation, 

appHes to other instinctive tendencies of the individual. 

Chief among these is curiosity. Curiosity is an impulse 

to discover merely for the sake oj finding out. It seeks 

knowledge for its own sake and for no ulterior purpose, and 

is to be contrasted with the tendency to find out facts 

because we vaguely or clearly realize that by so doing 

we shall be better aided in accomplishing some purpose 

that we have in view. 

It was for this latter reason that I carefully studied the lights on 
the bay during the trip from Newport to Providence, previously 
described. I wished to steer a straight course and was obliged 
to attend to the lights. If, however, I had been in no way re- 
sponsible for the safe handling of the boat, if I had been merely a 
passenger without care or worry, probably I should have looked at 
the lights in a purely inquisitive way, with no thought of their prac- 
tical significance. In this way, it is true, I might have gained a 
knowledge of the bay that would have been of advantage later on. 
The point is, however, that while for the time being my idle curi- 
osity would have been of no particular advantage, it might have 
given me a store of possibly useful information for a future need. 
Indeed, as events turned out, I could but wish that I had had op- 
portunity and desire to employ this idle curiosity on previous trips 



UNLEARNED BEHAVIOR 49 

at night on the bay. Then I might not have picked up the wrong 
Hght and have suffered imminent danger of shipwreck. 

We can see on atl sides the manifestation of this ten- 
dency of curiosity, particularly in the child. At a cer- 
tain age the little one asks innumerable questions, not 
waiting for answers and apparently not consciously car- 
ing for them. The small boy investigates all sorts of 
objects, and his desire to do this causes him to take them 
apart and even to destroy them, for he is impelled to 
know just what they are and how they work. This 
instinct of curiosity is responsible for some of the cruelty 
that the child unwittingly inflicts on bugs and flies. He 
does not want to hurt them, but he is impelled by the 
desire to see how they are put together. 

Curiosity, then, gives us a stock of knowledge that 
some day may be useful, though just at present it may 
seem dead lumber, which cannot be economically kept 
in the storehouse of the mind. Indeed, a great deal of 
it that is acquired in a haphazard way may never be of 
the least earthly service, such is the prodigality of na- 
ture in providing for the future. It i§, however, evi- 
dent that this curiosity, if directed toward the learning 
of useful facts, may be of the greatest educational signifi- 
cance. Of course it is just at this point that the wise 
teacher determines what things his pupils should know, 
and stimulates curiosity in regard to them by all legiti- 
mate means. If the child can only be made to feel 
that there is something in what he is studying that is 



50 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

sufficiently interesting and even mysterious to warrant 
an investigation, the rest will take care of itself. The 
average boy is curious enough about electricity to work 
out its fundamental principles, when once he has been 
started on the right road ; most school girls are suffi- 
ciently endowed with a native stock of inquisitiveness to 
learn about the customs of the early American colonists 
if they are properly introduced to the subject. We 
must, in view of these facts, forever give up the notion 
that the pupil will learn with interest only that for which 
he sees an immediate and practical use. He will learn 
much because he likes to learn, simply because he is curi- 
ous, and if properly controlled this learning may be as 
practical and useful as any other. 

Definitions and Explanation of Terms Used 

Instinctive. — Inborn, innate, unlearned; the term is 
applied to movements and to tendencies toward move- 
ment which are not learned or acquired through experi- 
ence, but which form part of the inherited endowment of 
the organism. 

Play. — An activity performed quite spontaneously 
and for no conscious purpose beyond the activity itself. 
Both curiosity and play have been termed " adaptive 
instincts," since they provide the individual in advance 
of any practical necessity with a set of activities that may 
serve some useful end. Both play and curiosity are 



UNLEARNED BEHAVIOR 5 1 

pleasurable activities, and the spirit that accompanies 
them is a valuable stimulus to learning. 

Work. — An activity not pleasurable in itself, and hence 
not undertaken for its own sake, but for an ulterior 
purpose. It has to do with ends relatively remote. In 
man it is usually accompanied by " active attention," 
as will be pointed out later. 

Curiosity. — An instinctive tendency to acquire knowl- 
edge for its own sake and in reference to no recognized 
practical end. 

Questions and Exercises 

1. In what way may an activity for which one does not see a 
present practical use be beneficial ? Give illustrations of the 
usefulness of instinctive imitation ; of instinctive repetition. 

2. Define play. Explain how the playful activities of young 
animals, such as the kitten or the puppy, may be useful in prepar- 
ing for the later activities of the animal. 

3. What are some of the useful results of play in childhood? 
Name some common games of childhood (hide-and-seek, prisoner's 
base, etc.), and show how the movements that these games 
exercise might have been useful to a man living under primi- 
tive conditions. 

4. Discuss HaU's theory of play. What games of childhood 
are important from the point of view of HaU's theory ? What 
should be the attitude of the teacher toward the rougher plays of 
the school-ground ? 

5. What is meant by "spontaneous" play? Under what 
conditions may games that are directed by adults be valuable for 
children ? 

6. Under what conditions may the "play attitude" be em- 
ployed in the actual work of instruction in the school? Give 



52 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

illustrations of games that might be employed to advantage in 
some phases of teaching language, arithmetic, geography, spelling. 

7. State some dangers of overemphasizing the play element in 
education. Can you justify the statement: "The child must 
often be encouraged to do tasks that he does not wish to do" ? 

8. What play elements are involved in the educational use of 
museum materials, stereopticon pictures, the stereoscope, moving 
pictures, etc. ? What principle should govern the use of these 
materials in the school ? 

9. Why should playgrounds be supervised by adults ? 

10. Define curiosity. Of what value would this "prying" 
instinct be to primitive man ? 

11. Give instances of facts that you have learned merely be- 
cause you were "curious to know." Have any of these facts 
proved valuable to you later ? 

12. In what ways may the curiosity of children be properly 
and helpfully stimulated in school work ? (Take specific subjects 
such as arithmetic, geography, natural science, spelling, drawing, 
etc., giving illustrations of useful knowledge that may be gained 
under the spur of curiosity.) 

13. Can you think of any circumstances under which curiosity 
should not be given free scope ? In the physical or chemical lab- 
oratory, would it be well to let the pupil " pry " into all sorts of 
things, without some guidance on the part of the teacher as to how 
he should go about his investigations ? 



CHAPTER IV 

ATTENTION AND BEHAVIOR 

In Chapter I the fact was emphasized that atten- 
tion is the invariable accompaniment of consciousness. 
An absolutely inattentive state of consciousness does not 
exist. We are merely relatively inattentive^^ In states of 
day-dreaming and the Hke, when our, thoughts are " wool- 
gatiierrrig," the crest of the conscious wave is low and 
broad. Such a state may be described as inattentive 
in comparison with a state of concentrated attention, 
when our entire thought is focused on some problem 
to be solved and when the wave of consciousness may be 
represented as high and narrow. However, in any state 
of consciousness there is a degree of concentration and 
hence at least a minimum of attention. It is further 
to be remembered that we often speak of a person as 
being inattentive when he is simply not attentive to a 
certain aspect of the situation that we think should be 
emphasized. The man who forgets to execute the little 
commissions intrusted to him in the morning, is inat- 
tentive in regard to these matters, for his thoughts are 
buried in his business; he may be highly attentive as 
far as the affairs in the oflSce are concerned. The teacher 
says, " Pay attention," when perhaps the pupil is giving 

S2, 



54 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

his very best attention, but not to the lesson at hand. 
He is listening to the tune of the street piano outside, or 
thinking of a ball game to be played after school is over, 
and his highest attention is directed toward these things. 
Definition of Attention. — In attempting to define 
attention, two questions must be considered : (i) what 
attention is ; and (2) what it does. From the first point 
of view, attention may be defined as a state of conscious- 
ness, certain parts of which are either relatively clear or 
relatively vivid, while other parts are obscure, unclear, 
indistinct. From the second point of view — what atten- 
tion does — it may be thought of as the selective function 
of consciousness, serving to emphasize certain details and 
to ignore others. Still we should be careful when we 
use the term " selection " not to think that this implies 
some mysterious mental " power." We can mean merely 
that in all our experience we find certain parts of con- 
sciousness standing out clear, or coming before us with 
an emotional intensity, while other parts are relatively 
obscure, or without significance. The " choice " that 
is exercised is that of consciousness itself over the pro- 
cesses that are entering into it or tend to enter in. What 
is attended to is determined by the purposes, the aims, the 
interests, the instinctive desires, that exist in conscious- 
ness, either dimly or clearly at the given time. 

For example, my present state of consciousness decides whether 
a faint noise that I barely hear shall be attended to or not. If it 
is of some interest, if it has a meaning and significance, if it fits 



ATTENTION AND BEHAVIOR 55 

into the purposes that dominate me, then it comes clearly into my 
experience ; if it has no such interest and no such meaning, it 
drops out. The mother hears the faint cries of the infant in an 
adjoining room, and immediately she is "all ears," because the 
sound means something to her; on the other hand, she is but 
vaguely aware of the fact that a heavy wagon is rattling over the 
pavement just outside, for this latter noise is of no significance 
to her at the moment in question. I have a task before me which 
I wish to finish ; it is my purpose to accomplish it, and I refuse to 
attend to various kinds of distracting experiences, because these do 
not fit into what I have in mind to accomplish. Hence I do not 
listen to the band that is playing, nor gaze at the procession that 
happens to be passing my window at that particular time. But 
my boy, who is going to the circus in the afternoon , rushes eagerly 
to the door to look at the parade, for this fits into his particular pur- 
poses and agrees with the interests and instincts of the time being. 

Kinds of Attention. — It is an important fact to keep 
in mind that we always attend to those details of an ex- 
perience that have for us some interest or value. However, 
this attention may be of two sorts, depending on whether 
the interest that calls it forth is immediate or whether 
it is relatively remote. If the object attended to has an 
immediate value, then we give what is usually called 
passive or involuntary attention. In this instance the 
object seems to seize upon the mind, and control it. 
We cannot help giving our attention. When the mother 
listens to the cries of the child, she is giving this passive 
variety of attention. There is no effort on her part; 
she has to attend, she wants to attend. The same is 
true of the boy who hurries to the door to see the pro- 
cession go by. 



56 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

However, seated in my study, I am attending to the 
task that I have before me, not because of its immedi- 
ate interest, but because of an end that I wish to accom- 
plish. As a matter of fact, I should like very much to 
go to the window and see the parade myself, but I am 
kept at my desk because I know that I must finish my 
work at a certain time, if I am to accomplish what I 
have set out to do. My mind is on the remote rather 
than the immediate end. I am not giving passive or 
spontaneous attention, but active attention. I hold 
my mind to what I am doing with a certain conscious- 
ness of effort. I am aware that I am controlling my 
own thought processes. They are not being directed 
from without. 

Laws of Passive Attention. — With the little child 
and with the animal, all attention is of the passive, spon- 
taneous, involuntary type. We start out in life by at- 
tending in this passive way to various experiences that 
have for us some immediate interest. Bright lights, 
loud noises, and other intense sensations possess originally 
this power of calling forth attention. They make the 
infant notice them. We also are interested in this purely 
passive way in objects in motion. Further, we always 
attend when there is any marked change in the situation, 
when it offers novel features, either because something 
has been added or taken away. In the latter case we 
attend to that which is absent and recognize it by its 
lack. We perhaps do not notice the tremor of the boat 



ATTENTION AND BEHAVIOR 57 

directly, but remember it when the engines have stopped. 
This is because we ignore the customary and attend to 
the unusual. Further, we invariably give attention to 
unpleasant experiences and to our organic needs and 
wants. If we are hungry or are suffering from a tooth- 
ache, we are quickly aware of the fact. When the di- 
gestive processes are going on normally, we are quite 
unconscious of them, but an attack of indigestion may 
make us unpleasantly aware of the existence of a stomach 
and a liver. Among other experiences that tend to call 
forth spontaneous attention are those that come in a 
rhythmic manner. Many a child gives heed to rhyme 
and jingle when he has no comprehension of, or interest 
in, the meaning of the stanza of poetry that he is asked 
to commit to memory. 

Consequently we may say that attention of this passive 
type is given to intense, moving, novel, unpleasant, contrast- 
ing, and rhythmic stimuli, and to stimuli arising from 
the vital bodily functions. 

It is also true that, under certain conditions, faint stimuli when 
oft repeated will force themselves upon attention. This "sum- 
mation of stimuli," as it is called, really has the effect of intensifying 
what would otherwise be a series of weak impressions. We may 
not attend to the first tap that we hear on the door, but, if the 
tapping is long continued, the noise forces itself into the center of 
our consciousness. 

The Significance of Passive Attention. — Experience 
is first built up through these original and instinctive 



58 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

tendencies to attend. They may be thought of as racial 
rather than individual in their character. It can easily 
be seen that, under primitive conditions of life, the animal 
that did not attend to intense experiences of various 
sorts would be likely to be eliminated in the struggle for 
existence. The very intensity of these experiences is 
an indication that they are right at hand to be counted 
with. Repetition likewise indicates that there is some- 
thing present that is not to be ignored; this is also true 
of movement. Likewise the new and the strange must 
be counted with. The young bird at first fears every- 
thing ; it learns what is safe only through experience. 
It seems necessary for the primitive consciousness to 
assume that the new is unfriendly and unsafe until its 
innocuous character has been established. Unpleasant 
experiences are usually harmful, and the organism that 
ignored them would not survive. Likewise hunger and 
thirst and the other organic sensations represent nature's 
demands that something be done to satisfy certain organic 
needs. They must be attended to. Finally, while rhyth- 
mic experiences do not in the same way seem vital to life, 
and while no one knows with certainty the reason why 
rhythm instinctively attracts us, it is to be remembered 
that the whole organization of the world, both internally 
and externally, is expressed in rhythms. Things come 
and go in a regular order. Night and day alternate, the 
seasons change, as the earth, circling around the sun, 
comes back to the same relative position from which 



ATTENTION AND BEHAVIOR 59 

it started. Within the human body there are also 
rhythms and periodic changes, some brief and others ex- 
tending over years. As will be pointed out later in this 
chapter, attention is itself a rhythmic process. No won- 
der, then, that rhythm means so much to the race. 

So important are these fundamental, instinctive ten- 
dencies that they never can be entirely overcome. We 
attend against our wish to the flashing of the lightning 
and the crashing of the thunder. The constant drip 
of the water on the pavement outside our window, we 
cannot ignore, and it keeps us awake. Some one moves 
across the room and we turn from our task to look, even 
against our wish. And so it is with the rest of these 
tendencies, planted deep by inheritance in our very being 
and as old as the race itself. We begin life with them ; 
they first build up our world ; and, though we may go be- 
yond them, we can never put them entirely aside. Ex- 
perience has shown that, when other means of calling 
forth attention fail, these primitive tendencies must be 
brought into play to assist in directing the mind into 
desirable channels. 

If the child's interests lag, make vivid the object that he is 
to attend to, and his wandering thoughts will return to their 
proper place. Emphasize, repeat, reiterate, and gradually the 
desired attention will be called forth. If the lesson is dragging, do 
something to awaken interest, even if it is nothing more than to go 
to the blackboard and draw a diagram. Better still, get the pupils 
to do something, for there is always interest in self-activity. Facts 
cast in the form of verse are often more easily learned than when 



6o HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

presented without such aid. A painful experience is sometimes 
/the only thing to impress the dull mind. It has been found in 
j studying the behavior of animals that they learn more quickly by 
bemg punished for failures than by being rewarded for successes. 
The rat that is learning to thread his way to the center of the 
maze will get there more quickly, if he is given an electric shock 
every time he enters a blind alley than if the stimulus of the food 
solely is relied on. What is true of the animal is probably to an 
extent true of the child. That is to say, education cannot entirely 
dispense with pain as a stimulus. 

The Law of Active Attention. — As development goes 
on, these crass and insistent objects of attention lose 
some of their force and we acquire the ability to attend 
to those parts of a situation which have in themselves 
no immediate interest, but which lead to something de- 
sirable that is ultimately to be attained. The bank clerk 
takes no pleasure in adding up the long column of 
figures, although as a child this activity may have given 
instinctive pleasure ; but he keeps at his task because he 
desires to be efficient in his calHng or perhaps because he 
hopes that his diligence will secure him promotion. Thus, 
he gives active attention, and sacrifices the immediate 
pleasure for a remote end. And this is the fundamental 
principle of human progress, this ability to hold the at- 
tention to that which at present exists only as an aim to be 
achieved or an ideal to be realized. 

An idea of an end to be gained which thus stimulates 
us to attend to tasks that are not themselves attractive 
is called an incentive or a motive. 



ATTENTION AND BEHAVIOR 6 1 

The Rise of Secondary Passive Attention. — At 

length, however, a change takes place in our mental 
attitude. In all learning, remote ends are gradually 
replaced by immediate ends. The clerk first works be- 
cause of the ideas of the future ; at length, he does his 
task because he is immediately interested in it. His 
attention is no longer active ; it is again of a spontaneous 
variety. It is an underlying fact of mental life that this 
substitution is made. Invariably that to which we 
gave active attention at one stage of our development 
is finally attended to through " secondary passive at- 
tention." Secondary passive attention is like primary 
passive attention, except that the latter is instinctive while 
the former has been acquired through a preceding period oj 
active attention. Thus we start out in life equipped solely 
with primary passive attention ; then we acquire the 
ability to give active attention ; this in turn is transmuted 
into secondary passive attention, and the whole process 
is begun again. Thus it is that both active and passive 
attention are necessary to all higher learning and worthy 
achievement. Neither should be emphasized at the 
expense of the other. 

Rh3rthmic Character of Attention. — At the outset of 
this chapter it was suggested that the stream of conscious- 
ness may be likened to a series of waves, each with its 
crest and valley. These waves correspond to the shift 
in attention, and this rhythmic rise and fall of the at- 
tentive consciousness is one of its chief characteristics. 



62 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

There are rhythms of a few seconds of duration, others 
of minutes and even hours ; there is also evidence of even 
more extended rhythms. Thus there are waves within 
waves, and the conscious stream must be considered as 
extremely composite. 

A simple experiment will convince us that it is impossible to 
keep the mind concentrated upon any one object, or upon a single 
phase of a situation for any length of time. If we try to look 
continuously at a spot on the wall, it wiU after a short period 
become blurred and indistinct, and we can get it back into clear 
vision again only by winking or by momentarily shifting the gaze. 
If a watch is removed to the limits of audibility, i.e., to a point 
where we can just barely hear its ticking, the sound will be distinct 
for a brief interval; then it will "die out"; after two or three 
seconds it will again be heard ; and so on. These periods of audi- 
bility and silence are fairly regxilar in their occurrence, and corre- 
spond to the fluctuation of attention. Objectively considered, the 
watch is ticking all the time with the same degree of intensity. 
When we fail to hear it, it is because our attention has "let up" for 
the moment. What is true of physical objects of attention is 
likewise true of ideal objects. If the thought that we are turning 
over in our mind is relatively simple, we can hold it in attention 
for only a relatively brief period. 

Variety in Unity the Secret of Sustained Attention. — 
It seems certain that the more complex a physical object, 
or the richer in content an idea, the longer attention of a 
sustained character can he given. The application of this 
principle to school procedure is obvious. // the teacher 
wishes a topic to he held in attentive consciousness hy the 
pupil, he must develop it in a variety of ways. When the 
attention " lets up " in one direction, it will then focus 



ATTENTION AND BEHAVIOR 



63 



itself on another detail of the topic, and thus the mind 
will be constantly held within the circle of the subject 
under discussion. This in part explains the growth of 
attention and interest as the pupil learns more and more 
about any of the school subjects. There is always a new 
aspect that can be attended to when there is sufi&cient 
variety in the subject matter. It should be kept in 
mind, however, that, if progress is to be made in learning, 
this variety must be a variety of related topics. The 
various aspects of the study must be organized in such 
a way that they form one coherent whole. 




64 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

The accompanying diagram will illustrate the principle here in- 
volved. The circle may serve to represent a complete topic or sub- 
ject of study. This topic centers in the central idea, " A, " and there 
are various divisions or phases of it, as indicated by the numerals 
just without the circumference. As the attention turns from, one, 
it falls upon another, but it does not wander away from the topic, 
since all the parts are related. Thus nothing is actually lost in 
the fluctuation of attention under such circumstances. // is 
evident, however, that if the various subtopics were not definitely re- 
lated, the normal fluctuation of attention would be disastrous to a 
genuine comprehension of the subject matter. 

Attention and Fatigue. — What is often thought of as 
fatigue is really a form of the fluctuation of attention. 
After the mind has been busy for some time on a mental 
task, attention decreases, not because there is genuine 
weariness, but because the individual gets " tired of " 
the task. The remedy for this ennui is obvious. On the 
one hand, genuine interest in the task must be increased, 
and, on the other hand, the pupil must be accustomed to 
ignore those distracting influences that in a short time 
set in to make mental work distasteful and to lure him 
away from it. When a task is undertaken, it is usually 
approached with a degree of reluctance. The mind 
requires a short time to get " warmed up," so that at- 
tention can be properly concentrated. This " warming- 
up process " takes a longer time with some individuals 
than with others, but it is present with all. 

The Conditions of Effective Work. — For this reason the 
first stages of the task should be made as clear and interesting 
as possible. Above all, the pupil should be made to real- 



ATTENTION AND BEHAVIOR 65 

ize that he should never yield to the initial lack of in- 
terest and that he should cultivate in his school work the 
ideal of setthng down at once to aggressive effort on a 
given task. Often half of one's time and energy is 
wasted in " the agony of starting." After the warming- 
up stage has passed, most of us continue to work steadily 
for a longer or shorter period. If we learn to ignore 
distractions and are thoroughly interested in what we 
are doing, we may continue to hold our attention on our 
task and to keep our interest alive until really fatigued 
or " worn out." 

Obviously this period of effective mental work varies 
with the disposition of the individual and with his age. 
Young pupils cannot, as a rule, work uninterruptedly 
so long as can older pupils and adults. School children 
should, however, be encouraged to keep at their study 
over a considerable period, and not think that because 
they have worked fifteen minutes or even an hour it is 
time to quit. We often get the idea that we have worked 
long enough, and then we begin to feel fatigued. There 
is little danger of the normal child seriously overworking 
in school. Authorities are at present of the opinion that 
dangerous fatigue among American school children is 
rare. 

How Many Objects can be Attended to at Once? — 
The question of the span of attention, i.e., of the number 
of objects that can be held in the mind in a single 
moment of attention, is not altogether settled. If a 



66 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

person is shown a number of dots for an instant, he will 
be able to recognize five or six correctly. Above that, 
he becomes confused ; and if the number is to be known 
accurately, the dots must be exposed long enough to 
enable the observer to count them. If, instead of dots, 
characters differing among themselves are shown, one 
can grasp a smaller number in a single instant, partic- 
ularly if they are unfamiliar. One can recognize more 
letters of the Roman alphabet, or more numerals, than 
Chinese characters, and one can distinguish more letters 
when they spell syllables and words than when they are 
unrelated. In general it may be said that surprisingly 
few elements can be recognized in an instant of attention 
unless they are in some way joined together in a significant 
whole. This fact once more emphasizes the importance 
of organizing and relating to the greatest possible extent 
all parts of the materials of instruction. 

Attention and Behavior. — Up to the present point 
in this chapter, attention has been considered solely on 
its subjective side, i.e., from the standpoint of its con- 
scious aspects. Equally important is its consideration 
as an aspect of behavior. It is to be remembered that 
we interpret attention in others through their behavior. 
Further, effective conscious behavior is always condi- 
tioned by properly concentrated attention. If we watch 
a dog that is trying to open a puzzle box, we shall observe 
that his relative lack of success is due largely to his in- 
abihty to keep to his task. He attacks it vigorously for 



ATTENTION AND BEHAVIOR 67 

a moment, then perhaps he gives it up entirely for the 
time, to renew it later in the same haphazard and desul- 
tory manner. Every teacher in the primary grades must 
be impressed with the fact that one of his chief problems 
is to secure sustained attention. The little child, both 
in his work and in his play, resembles in his behavior 
the lower animals. He cannot keep at one thing for any 
length of time. Defectives and, in general, weak-minded 
individuals, show by their actions how difficult it is for 
them to give attention to anything for more than a brief 
moment. It is the mark of a developed mind to be able 
to stick to a difficulty that one is attempting to master. 
When the attention is firmly fixed on the end in view, and 
when it is consistently held to that end, the behavior is 
definite and works out in a practical way. All compli- 
cated modes of behavior are conditioned in their e_ffectiveness 
by sustained and well-organized attention. ) 

The Bodily Attitude in Attention. — Not only is con- 
scious behavior conditioned by attention, but attention 
is aided by the proper sort of bodily attitude. We must 
look at an object, if we wish to find out what it is, and 
looking means not only that our eyes are turned in the 
right direction, but that we sit or stand erect and hold 
our heads properly. We cannot give a maximum of 
attention unless our bodies are in the proper posture. 
This applies not only to physical objects, but to thought 
objects as well. A listless attitude may or may not be 
hygienic, but it certainly is not conducive to effective 



68 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

study. The teacher is right in demanding that his 
pupils sit at their desks properly, that they stand erect 
and move about with energy. In fine, not only does a 
proper attitude mean that the attention has been properly 
secured, but also that it will be properly secured. In 
other words, attention is so closely related to effective 
behavior that the presence of one necessarily means the 
presence of the other. The behavior may be the result 
of the attention, or equally well the attention may be 
the result of the behavior, and thus it happens that the 
teacher may secure attention by insisting that his pupils 
assume the attitudes and perform the acts that are 
the natural accompaniments of well- concentrated and 
adapted attention. 

Definitions and Explanation of Terms Used 

Attention. — K state of consciousness, one part of which 
is relatively clear or relatively vivid, while the other 
parts are relatively obscure. 

Varieties of attention. — Passive attention is a state of 
consciousness in which the object attended to claims the 
entire interest. There is no sense of effort, no tendency 
to turn away from the object in the focus of conscious- 
ness. All attention is originally passive. Active atten- 
tion is accompanied by a distinct sense of effort. This 
form of attention is given when immediate interests tend 
to lead us away from the object attended to. In this 
form of attention, remote rather than immediate ends 



ATTENTION AND BEHAVIOR 69 

are held before consciousness. Secondary passive at- 
tention resembles primary passive attention in that it is 
spontaneous and without effort. On the other hand, 
secondary passive attention has been developed from 
active attention. It is acquired, not inborn. 

Incentive or motive. — The idea of an end or goal which 
impels one to active attention; which impels one, in 
other words, to sacrifice the immediate for the remote. 

Fatigue. — Mere lack of interest and ennui must be 
distinguished from actual fatigue in the sense of ex- 
haustion. A large amount of so-called mental fatigue 
is of the former sort. Few school children suffer from 
injurious fatigue. 

Fluctuation of attention signifies the rhythmic character 
in which attention manifests itself ; now a certain aspect 
of consciousness is emphasized, now another. 

Span of attention. ■ — This refers to the number of 
distinct objects that can be grasped in consciousness in 
any one moment. When such objects are similar and 
are joined in a significant whole more can be grasped 
than when they are relatively unorganized. 

Questions and Exercises 

1. Illustrate from your own experience how attention selects 
and emphasizes certain elements of consciousness. Fix an object 
in your attention; note some of the differences between your 
consciousness of the object attended to and your consciousness of the 
objects of which you are still aware, but not attentively. 

2. Note during a period of five minutes the different objects 



70 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

and ideas that you attend to. Determine as far as possible why 
attention is given to these objects and ideas rather than to others. 

3. As you are working on some definite problem, note the 
objects and ideas, unrelated to the problem, that tend to distract 
you. Can you tell in each instance why these tend to attract 
attention to themselves ? 

4. Note in a schoolroom or at church the factors that seem 
to distract the attention of a number of persons from the exercises 
in hand. Can you tell why these elements distract ? 

5. Make a list of the stimuli that appeal to primary passive 
attention. 

6. Illustrate the useful employment of primary passive atten- 
tion in the school. 

7. Define active attention. Find illustrations in your own 
experience. Why is it difi5cult to give active attention ? 

8. In what way is the ability to give active attention the 
condition of human progress ? 

9. What is meant by secondary passive attention ? How does 
it differ from primary passive attention ? From active attention ? 

10. Can you find an instance in your own life where a perma- 
nent and valuable interest has been developed without passing 
through a stage of effort and struggle, — that is, through a period 
of active attention ? 

11. Name some more or less "remote" ends that have, in 
your experience, governed active attention. Is the idea of an 
examination a more effective "incentive" to active attention than 
the idea that a study may be helpful to you in later life ? Which 
is the more effective as an incentive with you, the hope of some 
reward or advantage to be gained from effort or the fear of some 
punishment or disastrous consequence of not putting forth effort ? 

12. Name some incentives that you consider legitimate to utilize 
in schoolwork as spurs to active attention. Name some that you 
believe to be dangerous or undesirable. Give reasons for your 
choice. 

13. Can you find in your daily experience illustrations of 



ATTENTION AND BEHAVIOR 7 1 

rhythms or fluctuations of attention? Fixate some object and 
try to hold it in attention just as long as you can. Have you 
attended in this case to one single aspect of the object for the 
entire time ? Describe as accurately as you can what has gone on 
in your consciousness during this act of attention. 

14. What steps may the teacher take to utiUze the rhythms of 
attention ? 

15. What is meant by the "span" or "range" of attention? 
What suggestion can you find for teaching in the fact that we can 
attend to a wider range of objects when they are related or or- 
ganized than when they are unrelated ? 

16. Test in your own experience the statement that an appro- 
priate bodily attitude aids in concentrating attention. 

17. Make a note of some of the bodily attitudes that pupils as- 
sume which are not conducive to school work. What sort of atti- 
tude should the pupils have while studying in their seats ; while 
standing to recite ; when passing to the board ? 



CHAPTER V 
BEHAVIOR AND THE FEELINGS 

In an earlier part of this discussion the role that the 
feelings play in consciousness has been referred to. The 
present chapter will consider more in detail the nature 
of the feelings, both in their simple and in their more 
complex forms. The term " feeling" is used rather in- 
definitely both in daily life and in the discussions of the 
psychologist. In the present discussion it will be em- 
ployed, in accordance with the best usage, in a more 
restricted and definite sense. By it will be understood 
what is technically known as " affection." 

The Nature of Feeling or Affection. — The affective 
aspect of consciousness is that which gives value or worth 
to an experience. I not only know something, but I am 
affected in a certain way as well. I look at a bright and 
rich color. I recognize it as a gorgeous purple and at 
the same time I experience pleasure in seeing it. I learn 
of the death of a friend and, in addition to my knowledge 
of the event, I feel sorry. We not only know the events 
in the life of Abraham Lincoln, but we admire the man 
that Uved this Hfe. The feeHngs give the personal 
" tone " to our consciousness ; they touch what would 

72 



BEHAVIOR AND THE FEELINGS 73 

Otherwise be the indifferent grays of the pictures of the 
mind with bright or with somber hues. Without feel- 
ing, life would be devoid both of pleasure and of un- 
happiness ; joys and sorrows would vanish, and good and 
bad would be meaningless terms. Experience would 
be bereft of all human values, and we should gaze with 
the eye of calm indifference on the unfolding of the 
world's events. Nothing would make a difference, for we 
should not care. The most trivial event and the most 
terrible catastrophe would find us alike unmoved. 

It would seem then quite necessary that feeling, like 
attention, should be a characteristic of all of our con- 
scious experiences, and hence a mental state that is not 
in some way colored affectively is an impossibility. It 
is true that many psychologists hold that there are num- 
erous mental states that are " indifferent," or unaccom- 
panied by affective elements. The fact seems to be, 
however, either that such states are relatively not rich 
in f eehng, or that certain aspects of them are indifferent, 
while others have a feeling value. In any case, feeling 
is so definitely related to conduct that, for all practical 
purposes, we may assume it to be an invariable ingredi- 
ent of conscious states. 

Affection as an Element of Consciousness. — Affec- 
tion or simple feeUng, like sensation, which we shall dis- 
cuss later, is a fundamental element of consciousness. 
It seems never to occur alone, but always in connection 
with some sensory experience, and its function is to in- 



74 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

dicate the worth of that experience, — whether it is 
" good " or " bad " for the organism. 

Feehngs vary in two ways. They are either pleasant 
or unpleasant. The earliest and most fundamental 
form of unpleasantness is that which accompanies the 
sensation of pain. 

Pain, however, is not to be used as a synonym for the unpleasant, 
since the word "pain" is used in psychology to designate a distinct 
type of sensation. There are also many unpleasant experiences 
that are only painful in a figurative sense, and, further, certain 
mild pains of short duration may be not only not unpleasant, but 
slightly agreeable. However, pain may be considered for practi- 
cal purposes as unpleasant. On the other hand, there seems to be 
no sensation that is as uniformly pleasant. Even such experiences 
as tickle, whUe generally agreeable, may become, if intense enough, 
or if long continued, unbearable. 

The Function of the Unpleasant and of the Agreeable. 

— Unpleasant experiences may be taken as indications 
that the organism possessing them is in some way out of 
adjustment with its environment. They demand that 
a change be made, that a better adjustment be secured. 
On the other hand, pleasure would indicate a satisfactory 
adjustment. Since, however, a satisfactory adjustment, 
particularly if continued for any length of time, means 
a loss of consciousness, it would seem that an original 
pleasurable experience would be practically impossible; 
a state of well-being would be accompanied at the most 
by the vaguest of conscious states. States of pleasure 
occur in their clearest form as antitheses to previously 



BEHAVIOR AND THE FEELINGS 75 

unpleasant states. They come to stamp with approval 
behavior that has resulted satisfactorily. They tend to 
continue, at least until this behavior has been perma- 
nently estabHshed. 

Affection and Efficiency. — Pleasurable experiences 
raise the tone of the organism ; there is a more intense 
vitality and correspondingly greater possibiUties of ac- 
complishment. On the other hand, the unpleasant is 
depressing in its effect ; it lowers vitality and generally 
reduces efficiency. 

Not only do the pleasant and the unpleasant have 
marked effects on bodily conditions, but likewise the 
bodily condition works directly to produce states of 
agreeableness or disagreeableness. A piece of bad news 
may bring on an attack of indigestion, while equally well 
a digestive disturbance may cause a period of mental 
depression. It can easily be seen from the above that 
pleasure considered in its immediate results is always good 
and the unpleasant is always had. However, since the 
latter serves as a warning and ultimately may lead to a 
better adjustment, it has its place and justification in 
the scheme of things. Without it the race would long 
since have perished. It is also true that certain forms 
of behavior that were " good " for the organism living 
under primitive conditions are no longer " good " when the 
conditions of life have been modified. The " pleasant " 
continues to attach to them, however, and the " un- 
pleasant " similarly attaches to forms of behavior that 



76 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

were once ineffective or dangerous, but are now perhaps 
effective and valuable. 

We may lay down the general principle that necessary 
unpleasant experiences should never he avoided, while 
pleasures that lead to no harmful results should he encour- 
aged. Pleasure is often to he justified as an end in itself, 
the unpleasant never as an immediate end, hut only hy its 
ultimate results. The misdirected sympathy which would 
eliminate all unpleasantness from an imperfect world 
that demands the directive influence of pain and suffering 
is misguided ; but no more so than the harsh Puritanism 
that sets a value on the hard aspects of Ufe, apparently 
for the sake of the unpleasantness that they bring into 
being. It is a safe maxim for both the teacher and the 
parent to follow, — '* Surround the child with all the 
pleasurable experiences, all the happiness possible, to the 
end that his accomplishment may be great ; but never 
hesitate to bring the unpleasant into his life if, by so 
doing, a permament good may be accomplished." 

Complex Forms of Affection : the Emotions. — The 
simple affections of pleasantness and unpleasantness, as 
they develop in the experience of the individual, are worked 
over into more complex affective states, of which the emo- 
tions are the most striking and the most important. 

We all recognize that there are in our lives two kinds 
of experiences. For the most part, our conduct is or- 
dered on a routine plan. We meet the ordinary situa- 
tions of life in a conventional manner. It is true that we 



BEHAVIOR AND THE FEELINGS 77 

solve new problems, and deal with situations that are 
somewhat novel ; but, in general, we Uve the customary, 
humdrum life of civilized society. 

But, standing forth clear and sharp against this back- 
ground of the conventional, are the periods of storm and 
stress, — great crises, marked by intense, though con- 
fused, mental activity; by violent, though abortive, 
bodily expressions. Our Hves are no longer calm and 
placid. The customary channels of habit and thought 
are blocked. Turbulence and confusion reign supreme ; 
and from these storms, the individual may emerge, as 
it were, into a new world, his mode of life transformed, 
his standards and sanctions set anew, his perspective 
readjusted, and his vision clarified. These are the 
moments when we are paralyzed by fear, overwhelmed 
by anger, thrilled with joy, bowed down in grief, exalted 
with elation, surcharged with sympathy, maddened with 
hate and malice, deadened by despair, rejuvenated by 
hope, or awed with reverence. And to these turbulent 
experiences the name " emotion " is applied. 

Characteristics of an Emotion. — The emotions have 
been considered in different ways by different writers in 
psychology. Some regard them as intensified feelings — 
feeUngs that stir the individual profoundly and leave his 
mind in a state of turmoil. There is a certain justifica- 
tion for this view. It is a common experience that anger 
and fear, for example, when at all intense, quite upset us. 

Other psychologists emphasize the strong instinctive 



78 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

basis of the emotions, and hence regard them as native 
or inborn feelings. Here, again, there is a truth. Any 
one of the human instincts may work itself out in 
strong emotional expression under certain circumstances. 
An instinct when checked in its normal expression always 
sets up a disturbance in consciousness and in the behavior 
accompanying it, and this disturbance is clearly an 
emotion. But an acquired desire, when blocked, may 
also give rise to an emotional disturbance. 

Again, it has been pointed out that in an emotion there 
is always some object that is related to it, while in simple 
feeling no such object need be present. I may feel un- 
pleasant without being aware of any object to which the 
unpleasantness attaches itself, but if I am angry, I must 
be angry at something, if I fear there must be something 
that is connected with this fear. 

The necessity of an object toward which an emotion is directed 
is well illustrated in the case of certain mental diseases that have 
marked emotional accompaniments. The patient is in constant 
terror, for example, and yet there is nothing in the external world 
that should arouse this terror. It is the invariable case, however, 
that the person afflicted finds something in his surroundings that 
he fears. Otherwise the emotion could not complete itself. 
His mental condition arouses a complex feehng state, which be- 
comes a genuine emotion only when there is a fancied object to 
which the terror attaches itself. When there is no object, there is 
in the proper sense of the term no emotion. We cannot therefore 
properly speak of instinctive fears or angers, since at the beginning 
of Ufe there is no known object that is to be feared or hated. It is 
only as experience grows that these instinctive tendencies become 
"attached to objects and actual emotions are set up. 



BEHAVIOR AND THE FEELINGS 79 

The James-Lange Theory of Emotions. — An im- 
portant theory in regard to the nature of the emotions 
was set forth in its original form by Professor James more 
than twenty-five years ago, and later elaborated by him. 
Similar conclusions were reached independently by Carl 
Lange, a Danish psychologist, at about the same time, 
and hence this theory is known as the " James-Lange 
theory." It is based on the recognized fact that in 
emotions of any intensity there is a strongly marked ac- 
companiment of certain bodily sensations, such as trem- 
bling of the knees, chills running down the spine, " goose 
flesh," palpitation of the heart, a sinking in the stomach, 
and the like. These bodily sensations were formerly 
thought of as the result of the emotional excitement, 
but according to the James-Lange theory they are 
rather the cause. They constitute the very essence of 
the emotion, — in reality are the emotion. According to 
James, they form the substance of all the emotions, not 
only of the grosser ones like fear and hate, but also of 
the more exalted, such as the rehgious, the moral, and 
the aesthetic. This theory has caused a great deal of 
discussion ; but while many psychologists would be 
unwilling to go to the extent of saying, as does James, 
that the sensations accompan3dng these bodily changes 
are the emotion, most would agree that they constitute 
a very important and probably an indispensable element 
in our emotional experiences. 

Behavior and the Emotions. — The most helpful 



8o HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

point of view from which to regard the emotions is not 
from any one of the standpoints discussed above, how- 
ever, but from the standpoint of the behavior accom- 
panying emotional expression. It is doubtless true that 
with the emotion there is to be observed an intensity of 
feeling ; that emotions have a marked instinctive basis ; 
that they always relate themselves to some object that 
is regarded as arousing them, and that they are accom- 
panied by sensations of bodily excitement. More im- 
portant than all these, however, is the fact that an emo- 
tion never arises except under conditions of unsatisfactory 
and incomplete adjustment. 

In an earlier part of the present chapter it was held that 
unpleasant feelings were the accompaniment of unsatis- 
factory adjustment, i.e., of behavior that did not work 
out in such a way as to bring the organism into entire 
harmony with its environment. Mere unsatisfactory 
adjustment, however, does not give rise to an emotion. 
Titers must be added the fact that the behavior is not sus- 
tained in any one direction for any length of time and that 
it is incomplete in the sense that it fails to attain any result, 
whether pleasant or unpleasant. There is more or less 
suspense in behavior under the stress of the emotion. It 
is uncertain and fluctuating. There are rapid shifts 
in attention and, connected with this, relative confusion 
in the thought processes. 

Confused Thought and Abortive Movement Charac- 
terize the Emotion. — It is a fact that has long been ob- 



BEHAVIOR AND THE FEELINGS 8l 

served that emotion is opposed to clear thinking. It 
is Ukewise true that it is at variance with the cer- 
tain and sustained execution of any act. If the person 
under the influence of the emotion can only succeed 
in doing something definite, the emotion will tend to 
disappear. 

Clear Thought and Definite Action Kill the Emotion. 
— That is why the expression of an emotion tends to 
drain it off and restore the individual experiencing it to 
a calm state of mind. This view of the emotions helps 
to explain the feelings of bodily disturbance accompany- 
ing them. The intense feelings for the time being are 
unable to work themselves out in proper behavior, and 
there is a discharge of nervous energy throughout the 
entire body, setting in commotion heart and lungs, 
upsetting circulation and digestion, making the body 
tremble and the very hair stand on end. Perhaps some 
one insults me and I am so wrought up that I do not know 
"X what to do for the moment. I cannot adequately deal 
with the situation. An intense feeling of rage possesses 
me ; deep-seated instincts harking back to the primeval 
jungle surge through me, as I shiver and thrill with the 
ebulHtions of my passion. Then I strike out at the ob- 
ject of my rage at first blindly, but lateri perhaps effec- 
tively ; and, as I become master of the situation, my emo- 
tion vanishes. Or perhaps I yield to less savage instincts, 
and master the situation with the thoughts of my supe- 
riority over my aggressor, and so turn away with a smile 



82 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

of contempt on my lips. Whatever happens, however, 

/ do not rid myself of the emotion until in some way by a 

definite act or by a train of ideas that stand for acts, I become 

master of the situation, and happily or unhappily cope 

with it. 

The significance of sustained and definite behavior in the 
presence of a complicated situation, in preventing or in working oflf 
an emotion, may be further illustrated by the following example: 
An Atlantic liner encounters a fearful storm, and there is great 
danger that the vessel may be lost. There are brave men among 
the passengers as well as among the officers and crew, yet the latter 
remain calm, while the passengers are on the verge of a panic. The 
captain on the bridge knows equally as well as the merchant in the 
cabin what the storm means, but the captain is without emotion, 
as he firmly issues his orders, while the merchant is so nervous that 
he cannot follow the hand at cards which he is playing. The 
difference in the conduct of these two men is to be explained largely 
by the fact that the officer on the bridge is doing something to 
help the situation, while the man below deck is helpless. He has 
no effective mode of action to meet the situation, hence his strong 
feelings discharge themselves ineffectually and fill him with emo- 
tional excitement. If he could do something, he would at once 
become a brave man. Effectual doing always removes fear. It 
takes a hero indeed to remain quiet under the fire of the enemy. 
It is easier to be brave when ordered to charge the enemy even in 
the cannon's mouth. 

Situations suddenly Presented may Cause Emotions. 
— It is important to remember that the situations in 
which the individual finds himself incapable of any 
sustained and effective action are those which come upon 
him suddenly and develop rapidly. He has not had time 
to prepare for the emergency, to devise plans and think 



BEHAVIOR AND THE FEELINGS 83 

out methods of meeting them. If they had grown up 
gradually, he would not have been so overcome when 
actually confronted with them. 

Emotions may be Aroused by Imagined Situations. — 
It further should be borne in mind that the situation 
need not be really present, but may exist only in imagi- 
nation. While in the latter case the emotion is generally 
weaker than if the conditions for its arousal were present 
objectively, still it may reach an appreciable intensity. 
Fear of something that may happen, doubt as to the 
outcome of a course of events whose end is merely im- 
agined, may become very disturbing. Another fact to 
be kept in mind is that I may not be confronted with a 
situation to be dealt with personally, but that through 
imagination I may place myself in the position of some 
one else and thus experience in sympathy an emotion, 
although the event does not in any way concern me, and 
even though I have no personal interest in the individual 
whom I picture as confronted by the imagined difficulty. 
Thus through the mechanism of imagination the scope of 
the emotions may be greatly extended and a person may 
experience in an ideal world these situations that call 
forth emotional experiences. 

This possibility of experiencing an emotion imaginatively or 
vicariously is of fundamental importance in education. As will 
be pointed out in a later section, the most profound lessons of 
human life have been wrought out of emotional experiences, and 
since it is one important duty of education to conserve and trans- 
mit these lessons, it is fortunate that the experiences can be effec- 



84 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

lively re-lived by each generation. The art of the poet, the 
dramatist, and the novelist centers upon this problem ; and the func- 
tion of Uterature in education is primarily to insure in the pupil 
an emotional reaction which will leave as a residuum certain of the 
great ideals which constitute the most precious part of our heritage 
from past generations. 

Summary : Definition of Emotion. — In accordance 
with the various facts emphasized in the foregoing pages, 
we may define an emotion as a complex state of conscious- 
ness of high affective coloring, involving an intellectual and 
a will attitude; appearing under sudden stress in a rapidly 
developing situation, either actually present or ideally rep- 
resented, to which situation adequate adjustment is tem- 
porarily blocked; and accompanied by bodily sensations of 
considerable intensity. In this statement are embodied 
the facts : (i) that an emotion always has strong feeHng 
elements; (2) that there is a recognized object toward 
which the emotion is directed and in the presence 
of which some activity is demanded ; (3) that there is 
always a difficulty to be faced and that this difficulty 
is suddenly presented to the individual; (4) that the 
emotion may be the result of a situation not concretely 
present but brought up through imagination; (5) and 
finally that the organic sensations accompanying the 
emotion are important elements in it. 

A Mood as the Residuum of an Emotion. — When the 
emotion has run its course, there is often left a permanent 
residue, a long-continued affective coloring to conscious- 
ness, that may be designated as a mood. This mood 



BEHAVIOR AND THE FEELINGS 85 

may be vague and uncertain as far as its object is con- 
cerned, or definite and clear. In the latter instance it 
may be termed an " emotionalized prejudice " ; that is, 
a predisposition to act in certain characteristic ways in 
the presence of an object around which center marked 
feehng values. Prejudices of this sort are easily found 
in poKtics, morahty, and rehgion. When once formed 
they are extremely diflScult to overcome. 

Not only may a mood be the result of an emotional 
upheaval; it may become the starting point of a new 
expression of the emotion. Fits of anger often leave a 
tendency to become angry again on the slightest provo- 
cation, while a joyous overflowing of spirits leaves a 
feeling of happiness that readily again finds emotional 
expression when the least opportunity offers. 

Temperament. — Permanent inborn tendencies that 
characterize the emotional attitude of an individual are 
called temperament. The four traditional temperaments, 
which still to an extent are recognized by psychologists, 
are the sanguine, choleric, melanchohc, and phlegmatic. 
The sanguine and the choleric temperaments are easily 
excited, though the latter is much more vehement in its 
expression than the former. Both the melancholic and 
the phlegmatic are slow in action, but the melancholic 
is weak while the phlegmatic is strong. This classifica- 
tion may be considered as a general sketch, rather than 
an exact statement of temperamental differences. 



86 human behavior 

Definitions and Explanation of Teems Used 

Emotion. — A complex state of consciousness of a 
high affective coloring, involving an intellectual and a 
will attitude ; appearing under sudden stress in a rapidly- 
developing situation, either actually present or ideally 
represented, to which situation adjustment is tempo- 
rarily blocked; and accompanied by bodily sensations 
of considerable intensity. 

'Feeling is used in this discussion as identical with 
affection. It has been previously defined (see Chap- 
ter I). 

Mood. — A relatively permanent state of mind that 
results from a previous emotional experience, or serves 
as a predisposition for another emotional outburst. 
UnHke the emotion, the mood is sustained and conscious- 
ness is not in a state of turmoil. 

Temperament. — An inborn affective attitude that 
resembles a mood in many respects, but is more perma- 
nent and fundamental. 

Questions and Exercises 

I . Distinguish in your own experience the sensory and affective 
elements. What colors do you like best ? What colors do you find 
unpleasant? What colors would you describe as "indifferent" 
from the affective point of view ? Arrange the colors of the spec- 
trum (violet, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red) in the order of 
their affective value to you (that is, in the order of their 
pleasantness). Would you characterize the odors of the following 
substances as pleasant, unpleasant, or indifferent: tar, rose- 



BEHAVIOR AND THE FEELINGS 87 

water, camphor, musk, coffee ? What, to you, is the affective 
value of the taste sensations — sweet, sour, salt, bitter ? 

2. Can you find in your experience an instance of a "pleasant 
pain"? Give instances of sensations ordinarily pleasant in their 
tone that may, because they are too intense or too long in duration, 
become unpleasant. 

3. What is the relation of affection or feeling to behavior? 
Under what conditions should unpleasant experiences be avoided ? 
Under what conditions should such experiences be sought and en- 
couraged? What is the function of pain and suffering in life? 
Some one has said that pain has been the "schoolmaster of the 
race"; can you justify this assertion? 

4. What are the important differences between the simpler 
forms of feeling or affection on the one hand and emotion on the 
other hand? Can you recall from your own experience marked 
instances of anger, fear, joy, or grief ? Can you find an example of 
an emotion that was not directed toward an object ? 

5. Give a statement and an illustration of the " James-Lange" 
theory of emotion. 

6. Revive as far as you can the experience of a pronounced 
emotion. Can you justify from this experience the statement that 
emotion is opposed to "clear thinking"? What was the effect 
upon the emotion when you acted in a definite way with regard 
to its object ? 

7. What situations arouse emotions with you ? Will the idea 
of the situation arouse a similar emotion ? In what respect does it 
differ from the emotion aroused by the "real" situation? 

8. Compare the emotions that you experience when you wit- 
ness emotion in another person and the emotions that you yourself 
have in confronting the same situation. (Take, for example, 
witnessing a burst of grief or of anger in another person.) 

9. What is meant by a mood, and how does it differ from an 
emotion ? (Compare in your own experience the mood of happi- 
ness that follows from a pronounced emotion of joy with that 
emotion; or the mood of sorrow with a pronounced emotion of 



88 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

grief.) Can you find instances of alternating emotions or moods, 
— joy with grief, sorrow with happiness, etc. ? 

lo. What is meant by "temperament"? Name the four 
temperaments that have been recognized by psychologists. 

II. Can you assign to any of your friends or acquaintances 
characteristic temperamental differences ? Do you know persons 
who are generally hopeful and light hearted; others who are 
" moody " and depressed ; others who are prone to anger, and still 
others who are not easily moved, who " take life as it comes " ? 
Are these moods and temperaments due largely to external circum- 
stances, as far as your observation goes, or are they principally 
caused by the way in which the individual looks at life and feels 
toward it ? 



CHAPTER VI 

THE PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE 
AFFECTIVE LIFE 

The importance of the affective life to behavior has 
been pointed out in the preceding chapter. In the fol- 
lowing pages this relation will be more definitely con- 
sidered and further amplified. As has already been said, 
the great service of feehng is that it stamps with approval 
or disapproval any act of the individual, and thus tends 
to confirm and perpetuate such an act, or to prevent its 
repetition. Thus certain modes of behavior are finally 
considered desirable or the opposite, according to their 
pleasurable or unpleasant results. 

Affection and Attention. — The affective coloring 
makes it possible to hold a remote end of action in the 
mind in the face of immediate inclination. An end of 
action that had no feehng value could never dominate 
an individual, and hence sustained attention would be 
impossible in such cases, and behavior would be reduced 
to the level of instinct and habit. 

I should not have remained at my desk when I heard the music 
of the circus parade, had not the end that I was working toward 
been tinged with a strong desire to complete my task. The 
child in school will not steadfastly pursue a distasteful lesson, 

89 



90 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

except under the influence of some end that he wishes to gain, — 
either in the shape of securing a reward or avoiding a punishment. 
The matter of feehng or affection is, therefore, just as important 
in active as in passive attention ; but in active attention the affec- 
tive coloring attaches to the idea of the end, while in passive 
attention it attaches to the immediate activity. 

It should not be inferred, however, because remote 
ends of action are held in attention through the pleas- 
urable affective tone accompanying them, that the pleas- 
ure as such is the end of the action. Generally the per- 
son does not consider definitely whether the attainment 
of a desired end will bring pleasure or its opposite. The 
pleasure is not the purpose of the activity ; it is merely 
the accompaniment of activities that on the whole are 
desirable. 

The boy who is holding in his mind the proposed ball game at the 
close of school, is not thinking of the pleasure that he is to ex- 
perience, but of the details of the game. He gets pleasure in imagin- 
ing these, it is true, but his thoughts are centered in the activity, 
and are not rehearsing the pleasure as such. It is true that if 
he did not get pleasure out of the game, he would not continue 
to play it or to think about it ; the activity would not occupy his 
attention to the exclusion of his studies, nor engage his interests in 
any way, but this does not mean that he is thinking of the pleasure 
when his mind is on the game. 

The Importance of Insuring Pleasurable Outcomes. -^ 
This distinction between pleasure as the conscious 
end of action and pleasure as the accompaniment of de- 
sirable ends or actions is important from a practical 
standpoint. Acts that are to be repeated, ends that are 



SIGNIFICANCE OF AFFECTIVE LIFE 9 1 

to be achieved, and behavior that is to be confirmed, 
should be made as pleasurable in their consequences as 
possible, but little should be said about the pleasure 
itself. The function of the pleasurable experience is so. 
to emphasize the end of action that it will stand out 
clear in consciousness. When this takes place, the 
behavior will inevitably move in the right direction and 
achieve the desired result. On the other hand, if the 
pleasure of the activity is emphasized as something dis- 
tinct from the activity, the result is likely to be undesir- 
able. The experiences of the individual and the race 
emphasize the fact that pleasure as an end of action 
when definitely set up and recognized is a veritable will- 
o'-the-wisp. A striking illustration of this fact is found 
in later Greek civiKzation among the Epicureans. 
The aim of this school was to do nothing except for the 
pleasure that could be obtained from it. In the end 
many found that a Hfe conducted on this principle de- 
feated the very object that it sought, and instead of 
attaining the greatest pleasure in Ufe, the Epicureans 
ended in seeking the easiest method of escaping from 
life through a painless suicide. It is a fact of common 
experience that the seeker after pleasure soon becomes 
sated, blase, and despondent. 

Pleasure Accompanies Instinctive and Habitual Ac- 
tivities. — Since pleasure attends those acts that result 
satisfactorily, that place the individual in desirable 
relations to his environment, it might be inferred that 



92 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

no act could be pleasurable until its results had finally 
indicated its desirability. This is, however, not strictly 
so. All instinctive activities, all inborn tendencies, andy 
in general, all habitual activities are pleasurable, as far as 
they have any conscious accompaniment; to inhibit these 
activities causes definite unpleasantness, and when they 
are " blocked " by external forces, an emotional storm 
may ensue. 

It is to be remembered in this connection, however, 
that these impulses, as far as they are inborn or instinctive, 
have come down through generations of inheritance to 
the present time because on the whole they have proved 
themselves useful to the race and hence have sur- 
vived. Therefore it would be in accord with the principle 
previously set forth to find their expression pleasurable 
and their prevention unpleasant. Habits, in a similar 
way, represent the forms of behavior that have been 
valuable in individual development ; and their pleasant 
affective coloring is also clearly justified. 

Play, curiosity, imitation, and many other inborn tendencies to 
be discussed later are agreeable in their expression apart from any 
result secured. Some of these can with difficulty be repressed 
even when in individual instances the outcome is disastrous and 
hence unpleasant. For example, the migratory instincts that in 
one of its forms is called "spring fever" and which impels the 
individual to seek a change of environment, is with some persons 
so strong that the most unpleasant consequences are ineflFectual 
in checking it. Some cases of persistent truancy can thus be 
explained. 



SIGNIFICANCE OF AFFECTIVE LIFE 93 

The Practical Significance of the Emotions. — While 
the practical value of the simpler feelings is quite ob- 
vious, the usefulness of the emotions is not so easily 
demonstrated. Indeed, because of the turmoil in which 
they place the individual and the havoc that they work 
in the train of thoughts, it was held for a long time that 
emotions were always undesirable and a mark of weak- 
ness. It is, however, reasonable to suppose that the 
emotions possess some positive value ; otherwise they, 
would long since have been ehminated in the sifting of 
the evolutionary process, — for nothing that is harmful 
can permanently survive, and even something that 
is merely useless is likely to be eHminated. The emo- 
tions, however, are among the most fundamental and 
persistent parts of our mental inheritance. How, then, 
can their survival be explained? 

If we were to identify the emotions with intensified 
feeUng, it would not be difficult to show their value as 
incentives or inhibitions to action. Under the dominance 
of rage the person would be more hkely to attack and 
destroy his enemy, and when possessed by fear he would 
more readily run away and thus save himself from de- 
struction. But, as we have already seen, emotion cannot 
be considered as a pure state of f eehng of great intensity ; 
there must be added to the mental complex that consti- 
tutes the emotion, certain ideas, certain impulses to action, 
and above aU the impossibihty of consistent and useful 
behavior in the presence of a difficulty that cannot 



94 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

be adequately met and immediately overcome. Surely 
in themselves abortive behavior and confusion in the 
thought processes cannot be considered as in any way 
useful. Yet these are invariable and essential characteris- 
tics of the emotional experience. Without this " block- 
ing " of adjustment, with its accompanying confusion 
of ideas, emotions would be bereft of their chief char- 
acteristics. All that would be left would be a feeUng 
of greater or less intensity and an idea of the object 
calhng forth this f eeHng ; but such a mental state would 
not constitute a completed emotion. 

The Value of the Emotion must be Sought in its 
Outcome. — It is evident that if emotions have some 
value (and it seems impossible to hold that they do not 
in the light of their antiquity and prevalence in both 
human and animal Hfe), this value cannot reside in the 
emotional expressions as such, hut in something that re- 
sults as a consequence of this emotional expression. The 
attempt has been made by various writers to show how 
such expression may have incidental values sufficiently 
great to account for the appearance and continuance of 
certain kinds of behavior that manifest themselves under 
emotional stress. 

Among such incidental values may be mentioned the 
fear that comes to the fighter when his adversary shows 
evidences of rage, and thus strikes terror to the heart, 
or when the attitude of misery and despair calls forth 
the sympathy of the onlooker and in consequence aid. 



SIGNIFICANCE OF AFFECTIVE LIFE 95 

Now it is evident that the mere rage as such renders the 
person less able to fight than if he possessed a cool head, 
while the emotion of despair in itself hinders its possessor 
from meeting the situation in any useful way. It is 
because of the effect on others, and because of their 
subsequent behavior in consequence of this effect, that 
such emotional expressions possess a value for the indi- 
vidual manifesting them. Attempts have been made to 
show how all varieties of emotional expression have some 
sort of utiUty, — even frowning, trembhng, and other 
apparently unmeaning or harmful forms of behavior. 
We cannot here go into the details of this discussion, but 
must turn to a consideration of the most important 
service that the emotions render in bringing into exist- 
ence useful forms of behavior. 

Emotions Induce New Modes of Behavior. — The 
great value of the emotional experience lies in the fact 
that through the turmoil it causes, there are made possible 
new modes of behavior and new trains of ideas, resulting 
in new activities. It often takes nothing short of a 
mental cataclysm or " shock " to wipe out old and harm- 
ful habits of conduct and to set up new and useful actions. 
During the period when the will seems paralyzed, when 
thoughts are confused and action vacillating and un- 
certain, the old and harmful habits that have dulled 
the mind and mechanized behavior are at least tempo- 
rarily obUterated, and the opportunity is thus offered for 
a new start and the gradual formation of a new set of 



96 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

habits and new attitudes of the mind. Emotion may 
then be looked upon from the physical standpoint as a 
means for blocking old paths of discharge in the nervous 
system, and opening up new paths which may to advan- 
tage be utilized in the future ; while on the mental side 
it may be considered of service in casting out old, stale, 
and relatively harmful sets of ideas that have centered 
around certain forms of behavior, thus affording the op- 
portunity for a fresh start and for the establishment of 
another set of ideas. 

An example of the function of an emotional experience in pre- 
paring the way for a new set of adjustments is to be found in thfe 
religious emotion as it manifests itself in the various phenomena of 
"conversion." The old self with its evil habits and base ideas is 
adjusted to certain typical situations, and for these situations the 
behavior may or may not be relatively satisfactory. The mere 
feeling of unsatisfactoriness and discontent with the old life is not, 
however, sufficient to bring about a change in the established modes 
of conduct that have grown up through years of experience. 
The individual does not get away from the old self so easily. He 
must be plunged into fears and doubts, he must experience hopeless- 
ness and despair, he must be thrilled with the agonies of a lost 
soul, before a change comes about and he is freed from the former 
life and given the opportunity to start anew. AU this unrest, 
this doubt and hesitancy in action, this confusion of thought and 
this waste of nervous energy, is, considered in itself, bad; it 
is valuable only because it may lead to a new point of view in 
regard to life and a new and better method of coping with its 
problems. The religious emotion considered in and for itself is 
a disorganizing experience ; it brings about a temporary chaos ; 
but if from this travail of the soul there be born a better life, then 
the emotion has a value. 



SIGNIFICANCE OF AFFECTIVE LIFE 97 

Nations, like individuals, sometimes need a complete upheaval 
in order to bring about a newer and better adjustment. Great 
political reforms have frequently been achieved by slow and de- 
liberate processes; but on other occasions rational reform has 
seemed impossible, and only a radical catastrophe has brought 
about a better state of things. This is particularly true of such 
an event as the French Revolution, which, in spite of its excesses, 
seems now to have been necessary in order that France might 
work out her emancipation. The revolution in itself was bad; 
its results were, however, good. Perhaps even a clearer example of 
this necessity for violence is furnished by the American Civil War. 

The Theory of Consequences Holds for All Emotions. — 

What is true of the rehgious emotion is true of all other 
genuinely emotional experiences, whether they be high 
or low. Fear, anger, jealousy, contempt, joy, grief, 
thrills of rehgious awe, moral grandeur, aesthetic ap- 
preciation, and htmiorous incongruity are all in the last 
analysis related to some incomplete and unsatisfactory 
mode of adjustment, and all have a value in their conse- 
quences, resulting in better adjustments to the objects 
caUing forth these emotions. 

Even a just appreciation of the ludicrous and trivial 
in conduct, an appreciation that has immense practical 
significance, is conditioned on a temporary blocking of 
the ordinary channels of thought and typical modes of 
behavior. As Professor Angell has well said : " The 
joke is par excellence the typical stimulus provocative 
of disorganizing tendencies in our coordinations. We 
listen to the skillful raconteur, our minds following step 
by step the evolution of the epic, and then, presto! the 



98 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

unexpected occurs ; our minds react to the shock with ail 
appreciation of the anomalies of the situation. The 
motor discharge in laughter announces the relief of the 
energy pent up momentarily by the unforeseen de- 
nouement, and the total experience constitutes our feeling 
of the funny, the odd, or the amusing." 

Often a tense situation is saved by a flash of wit. Sir Walter 
Raleigh, when he was led to execution, felt of the ax and re- 
marked, "It is a sharp medicine, but a cure for all ills." The 
solemnity of the ceremonies attending the signing of the Declara- 
tion of Independence was relieved by Franklin's famous pun, 
"We must all hang together," remarked one of the signers. "Yes, 
— or separately," replied Franklin. 

In school management, serious crises may often be averted by 
the ready wit of the teacher. The following story is told of Sir 
William Thomson (now Lord Kelvin), the famous professor of 
physics at the University of Glasgow. He placed upon the black- 
board of a lecture room, "Professor Thomson will meet his classes 
here to-day." A wag erased the letter c, and when the professor 
mounted the platform at the beginning of the lecture hour, he read 
these words, "Professor Thomson will meet his 'lasses' here 
to-day." The great physicist quickly turned the laugh in the other 
direction by erasing the letter / from the word "lasses." 

The Affective Element in Teaching. — One of the most 
important problems that arise in connection with educa- 
tion concerns the value that should be attached to the 
affective Hfe, in both its more simple and its more com- 
plex forms. 

Until recently there has been a tendency to give 
feeHng but a small place in formal education. The 
emphasis was placed on mere intelligence, particularly 



SIGNIFICANCE OF AFFECTIVE LIFE 99 

on mere knowledge. We know, however, that facts as 
such have no value in the control oj conduct. It is only 
when they have some worth, when they appear valuable to 
the individual, that they lead to action. There must be a 
glow of feeling, a desire, some form of approval, a preju- 
dice, that attaches itself to the mere fact and gives it a 
sanction. Even when the fact itself has no immediate 
practical significance, its value in reference to other 
facts that are being taught, must be shown. A date in 
history, as a mere date, has little use, but when its con- 
nection with events in which the pupil has an interest is 
shown, the date becomes significant, it has worth, there 
is an actual feeling that is attached to it, and it thus 
becomes of service in further learning. When we come 
to the larger facts that relate to good government, social 
integrity, moral uprightness, and the Hke, mere facts 
should never be presented. A simple knowledge of the 
machinery of our government does not make better 
citizens ; the nature of the effects of alcohol and narcotics 
may be learned by the child and have no further effect 
than to satisfy his curiosity ; the poverty and degradation 
of the slums may excite only a morbid interest. The 
parent in the home, the teacher in the school, and the 
leader in the social life should all see to it that those 
whom they would teach are not given mere information, 
but that in addition to the knowledge imparted there 
is awakened a genuine feeling that may lead to desired 
action. 



lOO HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

It is becaiise of the failure to recognize the operation of this 
factor that it is so difficult to effect reforms in human society- 
through a mere change in the curriculum of the public schools. 
Those imacquainted with the difficulties imder which the teacher 
does his work often wonder why by teaching certain facts and 
principles we cannot make all pupils healthy, temperate, hiunane, 
chaste, and law-abiding. It is evident, however, that, basic to 
the principle must be the desire, the feeling of worth, the ideal. 
We must not only instruct pupils in the facts and laws of physiology 
and hygiene ; we must also imbue them with a strong and effective 
desire to lead moral Uves. A man might know the facts and laws 
and still fail to apply them. Knowledge is at best only a means to 
an end ; and if we are to insure its appUcation to the needs of life, 
we must see to it that our pupils are inspired with aims, with am- 
bitions, with purposes that are consistent with the rights of others. 
The high school graduate might use his knowledge of chemistry to 
manufacture dynamite for an infernal machine ; his knowledge of 
physics to arrange the batteries that would explode it ; his knowledge 
of geography to reach the scene of his crime. Knowledge as such is a 
quite impersonal thing; it may work for evil just as readily as 
for good ; and if the school concerns itself with knowledge alone, 
if it neglects the aims and ends toward the attairmient of which 
knowledge should be used as a means, it fulfills only one half of 
its duty, — and by far the less important half. 

The Emotional Element in Teaching. — The relation 
of the emotions to the problem of teaching is not so 
easily determined. Some would insist that there is 
small place for the emotions in Ufe, and consequently no 
place in the school; that the teacher should never show 
emotion and that the pupil should never experience it. 
i We have seen, however, that emotion has a value in that 
lit enables the individual and the community to break 



SIGNIFICANCE OF AFFECTIVE LIFE lOI 

away from an habitual mode of behavior of a low order, 
and substitute for it modes of behavior of a higher ordery 
It makes possible a renaissance, a re-birth. The reli- 
gious revival that sweeps the community often upsets 
the equihbrium of the community life. Women neglect 
their household duties and men slight their business; 
there is much purposeless activity, a waste of energy 
that in itself is bad. Yet if the revival leads later on to 
a better attitude in the community Uf e, to a more valuable 
form of behavior on the part of the individuals in the 
community, it has served a useful purpose. If it ends 
in mere excitement, in a religious and moral dissipation, 
it is not to be justified. 

What is true of the larger life in the community as a 
whole is equally true of the smaller life in the home and 
in the school. The child should be stirred to emotional 
excitement only when new attitudes and new varieties 
of conduct are demanded that cannot be secured in less 
radical ways. The boy who cannot be impressed with 
the desirability of right actions by ordinary means 
should be made to fear, the pupil who wiU not stand 
up for his own rights must be touched with the spirit of 
rage, if the proper acts of self-protection are to be set 
up. So it is with the higher emotions. Often the com- 
prehension of a moral situation cannot be brought home 
to the individual until he experiences, either actually 
or in imagination, the struggle between good and evil 
impulses, the pangs of remorse, and the exultation of a 



I02 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

moral victory. It is the chief function of art, particularly 
of literature, in the poem, the story, and the drama, to 
bring home the great moral truths, by presenting vividly 
to the imagination situations filled with emotion, and 
causing the pupil to re-live these experiences in imagina- 
tion. In this way he may readjust himself on a higher 
level, through an emotional experience that attaches it- 
self to an imagined rather than to an actual situation. 

The aesthetic emotion has Ukewise an important 
place in education. Artistic appreciation is seldom se- 
cured by mere formal instruction in the history and prin- 
ciples of literary composition, of painting, of sculpture 
and architecture. There should be a time when the 
intellectual attitude that such an interpretation demands 
should give way to an actual emotional thrill. 

The emotion that comes in the moment when a comic 
situation is comprehended, is of distinct value in awaken- 
ing dull wits and sluggish minds. These are too " matter- 
of-course " and should be touched at times with the 
humorous and ideal aspects of life. The school has too 
frequently considered all forms of humor dangerous to 
the seriousness of formal instruction and has written 
over its portals, " Abandon mirth all ye who enter 
here." 

The Emotional Element in Religious Education. — 
The teaching of religion is one of the most serious prob- 
lems that confront the world to-day. It is now gener- 
ally held in America that formal instruction in dogmatic 



SIGNIFICANCE OF AFFECTIVE LIFE 103 

theology should find no place in the school, and such in- 
struction is probably less common than formerly in the 
homes. Even in the church it seems to be losing its 
former important position. What is to take its place? 
Surely not the Bible as literature, in which the stories 
of the Old Testament are put on an equal basis with the 
classic myths and the tales of the Norse heroes. The 
essence of true religion does not lie in dogmas, creeds, 
and observances ; neither is it to be replaced by the 
pleasures of fancy or the delights of literary appreciation. 
An appreciation of the grandeur of the Psalms cannot 
be made an effective substitute for the thrill of reverential 
awe that the individual experiences in the presence of 
the God of the Psalms. A knowledge of the self-sacrifice 
and love of Christ can never serve as a substitute for 
the emotion of reverence when the individual bows in 
humility before the Man of Sorrows. 

True religious attitudes can he induced and kept alive 
only hy occasional religious emotions. Reverence, awe, 
a feeling of the insignificance of the individual in the 
presence of the overmastering power of the universe, 
these have still an important place in human life. That 
the young person may realize them and fashion his be- 
havior accordingly, he must experience their emotional 
thrill. 

The Moods and their Use in Education. — We have 
said in an earher part of our discussion that an emotion 
tends to pass over into a permanent mood. Since these 



104 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

moods, unlike the emotion, do not have the quality of 
stirring the individual up, since they permit clear think- 
ing and definite action, they are valuable in themselves 
and not merely in their results, provided that they are 
worthy. A proper attitude of fear in regard to the 
really dangerous, a feeling of resentment toward improper 
conduct on the part of others, a sympathetic under- 
standing of the worth of a moral situation, a sense of 
reverence for the higher things of life : all these and many 
others are desirable moods, a,nd the emotions in which 
they originate have thus a justification. 

Should the Teacher Show Emotion? — We have seen 
that the emotion has a certain value, apart from its 
function in making possible new adjustments in the or- 
ganism, in that its expression often has an effect on the 
individual toward whom it is directed. An exhibition 
of rage may excite fear ; dejection and sorrow may arouse 
pity ; indignation may engender a sense of remorse. It 
is therefore not true that the parent and the teacher 
should show no emotion in dealing with children. The 
child who is punished should not only realize that 
wrongdoing is unpleasant. He should feel that it is 
wrong. But if he is being treated as a morally irrespon- 
sible being, if the punishment is administered from the 
sole standpoint of its consequences in improving his con- 
duct, it loses much of its significance. 



SIGNIFICANCE OF AFFECTIVE LIFE 105 

■ Questions and Exercises 

1. In anticipating a desired activity (a vacation trip, a "party," 
a feast) what does your mind "dwell upon" — do you "think" 
about the feeUngs that you will experience, or do you imagine your- 
self going through with the activities ? In other words, is the end 
that you have in mind the pleasure, or is the pleasure merely the 
accompaniment of the images that pass through your mind ? 

2. What useful purposes do the emotions serve ? Can you find 
examples in your own experience where your Ufe has been trans- 
formed in some measure by an emotional "shock" which perhaps 
at the time only confused you and rendered your conduct ineffec- 
tive? 

3 . How would you explain the efificiency of religious ' ' revivals ' ' ? 

4. In what way may an appreciation of the ludicrous, the comic, 
and the "funny" serve a useful purpose in Hfe? 

5. What is the relation of emotion and feehng to moral educa- 
tion? If we are to "teach" temperance in the schools in a way 
that will be successful in promoting temperance, what must be 
done in addition to imparting "knowledge"? 

6. What subjects in the curriculum are best suited to appeal to 
the feelings and the emotions ? 

7. What are some of the great moral truths that may be 
enforced by the study of Macbeth, the Idylls of the King, the 
Vision of Sir Launfal ? Should the pupil experience in imagination 
the emotions that are here portrayed ? 



PART II 
MECHANICAL MODES OF BEHAVIOR 

CHAPTER VII 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AS THE ORGAN OF 
BEHAVIOR 

In the previous chapters behavior has been discussed 
principally from the standpoint of the states of conscious- 
ness that go with it, although we have spoken from time 
to time of certain reflex, instinctive, and habitual activi- 
ties. In these activities, consciousness is either entirely 
absent, or, if present, it seems to have no directive value. 
The types of behavior that do not require consciousness 
for their execution must now be considered, — those 
forms of conduct that occur in a machine-like way and 
take place with mechanical regularity when the proper 
conditions are present to bring them about. 

A piece of dirt blows into my eye and I immediately shut the 
lid. It is true that I know that a particle is in my eye and that 
the Ud is shut fast. This knowledge does not make me close the 
lid, however. Consciousness accompanies the activity, but does 
not direct it. As long as the particle remains lodged in my eye the 
lid will continue to close from time to time, even in spite of my 
best efforts to keep it open. Again there are times when I wink 

io6 



NERVOUS SYSTEM 107 

my eye and do not know that I am doing it. It is qviite evident in 
this latter instance that the act of winking goes on without con- 
scious control, for there is no consciousness present to direct it. 
It is, however, equally true in the former case that consciousness 
does nothing in directing the act of winking. Its presence does 
not account for the behavior ; the winking in both instances is an 
"involimtary" act. 

The Nervous System and Behavior. — Behavior that 
is not directed by consciousness is to be understood as 
being entirely controlled by the nervous system and as 
the direct result of activities going on within this system. 
To understand these activities it will therefore be neces- 
sary to consider briefly some of the most essential facts 
in regard to the brain and the spinal cord. The way in 
which the nervous system acts may best be imderstood 
if we review some of the steps in its development from 
the lowest forms of animal Hfe up to man. 

The Simplest Type of Behavior. — In the amoeba 
there is no nervous system. This single-celled bit of 
hving matter or " protoplasm " is without any organs 
whatsoever, yet it takes nourishment, moves about, and 
reproduces itself, although there is no specialized mechan- 
ism for executing these activities. Any part can tem- 
porarily serve as a mouth or a stomach; movement is 
accompUshed through a change of form ; and reproduc- 
tion consists merely in the animal's breaking in two and 
thus dupHcating itself. 

The amoeba not only executes the acts described 
above ; it also responds to stimulation of various kinds. 



io8 



HUMAN BEHAVIOR 



It changes its behavior when affected by lights of differ- 
ent colors, and yet it has no eye to see ; it responds to 
changes in temperature and to electric shock, and yet 
there are no organs for receiving these excitations. 
Further than this, there are no muscles whose activity 
can bring about these changes in behavior. And, finally, 




Fig. 4. — Food-taking reaction of the amoeba. The numbers illustrate the 
four stages of the activity. In No. i the food is external to the substance of the 
amoeba ; in No. 4 it is completely surrounded. (From Jennings, "The Behavior 
of Lower Organisms," Fig. 18.) 

there is no specialized device by which the excitation, 
after it has been received, can be conducted from the 
point of its reception to some other part of the organism at 
which an appropriate response to this excitation is made. 

Complex Behavior Requires Complicated Structures. — 
The more highly organized animals, however, possess 
sets of specialized cells (different " tissues " making up 
different " organs ") ; and each of these sets of cells 
performs a specific function. Among these specialized 
" tissues " are devices for receiving the excitations that 



NERVOUS SYSTEM lOQ 

come from the world outside, for conducting these ex- 
citations from the point where they are received, and 
finally for transferring them to a muscle which by 
its activity produces a response or movement. 

In the case of the chick, for example, rays of hght 
from bits of food, grains of sand, and the like faU upon the 
eye. The stimulation is carried from the eye along the 
nerves of sight to a central portion of the nervous system, 
and here the excitation is transferred to nerves leading 
to certain muscles. The stimulation at length reaches 
these muscles, which are then set in action, with the 
result that the chick pecks at the bits of food and 
the grains before it. The chick has (i) a relatively in- 
tricate nervous system with sense organs, such as the 
eye and the ear, each of which is particularly adapted 
to receive a special type of stimulation ; and (2) various 
muscles that are affected by the stimulation when it has 
been carried to them through the nervous system. By 
their activity these muscles set up certain appropriate 
forms of behavior. 

The Simplest Form of Nervous System. — The nerv- 
ous mechanism in its most simple form serves to join 
a sense organ with a muscle or set of muscles. The 
whole is a unit, the various parts acting together. Stim- 
ulation is received and transferred to the appropriate 
place for the necessary action to take place. The nerv- 
ous system may then be considered as a device for turn- 
ing the excitations received from the external world into 



no HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

appropriate responses. The amoeba is capable in a very 
simple way of responding to such excitations, although 
it possesses no nervous system. As behavior becomes 
complicated in the higher forms of animal Hfe, a nervous 
system puts in its appearance along with other specialized 
sets of cells. Complicated behavior and a complicated 
nervous system go together ; where the one exists, the other 
is surely to he found. 

We may be aided in understanding the workings of the nervous 
system and the manner in which it has developed by thinking of it 
after the analogy of a telephone system. Perhaps telephones are first 
installed when the town is small, and the instruments are corre- 
spondingly few. The connections that can be made are therefore 
few in number. As the town grows, the number of instruments 
correspondingly increases and the possible number of connections 
multiphes. When the town has reached the proportions of a 
large city, there are many thousand instruments, and an almost 
limitless number of connections is possible. Also the system of 
one city may be brought in connection through "long distance" 
. with the systems of other cities, and one subscriber may thus be 
put in touch with millions of others. In this way parts remotely 
separated can be brought into almost instant communication. 

If we carry our analogy of the telephone system still further, 
we shall see that,. while it is possible for an almost infinite number 
of connections to be made, in fact, such a number is never made. 
Each subscriber has a hmited number of persons whom he ordinarily 
"calls up," and only in rare instances and under unusual conditions 
does he call up others ; further, there are certain Hues that are more 
often used than are others. 

The nervous system may be thought of in like manner. It 
has various centers, corresponding to the various telephone ex- 
changes in the various districts of one city and to the exchanges in 



NERVOUS SYSTEM 



III 



various cities, all capable of acting when the necessity arises, thus 
joining all parts to- 
gether in a unit. 

"Preferred" 
Paths of Conduc- 
tion. — In the 

nervous system, 
then, all sorts of 
combina tions 
theoretically may- 
be made, but all 
are not actually 
made. There are 
certain preferred 
or usual paths for 
the conduction of 
nervous energy 
throughout the 
nervous system, 
just as there are 

Fig. s- — This figure shows the intricacy of the con- 

Certain custom- nections between neurones in the cortex. The thick 

flrv rnnnertiorm ^^^ bodies with their processes, the axones and den- 

•' drites, are to be observed. (From Barker, " Nervous 

within a tele- System," Fig. 6ss, after Cajal.) 

phone system. Some of these paths of nervous con- 
duction are already in existence in the organism at birth, 
while others are developed during the life of the organ- 
ism. The former are inherited, while some of the latter 
are the result of experience. 




112 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

The Neurone. — The most essential part of the ner- 
vous system consists of elements technically known as 
" neurones." Each neurone is separated from all the 
others ; that is, no two neurones are actually joined to- 
gether in the sense that one grows into another. 

The typical neurone has a central portion, known as 
the " cell body," and from this grow out two dififerent 
" processes," the one a long threadlike growth, called 
the " axone " and the other a shorter branching exten- 
sion that looks something like a tree or thick shrub, and 
for this reason is given the name of " dendrite." The 
axone Hkewise ends in a number of branches, known 
as the " end-brush." 

The Synapse. — As has previously been said, no two 
neurones grow together. The connection is made at 
the point where the end-brush of the axone interlaces 
with the branches of the dendrite. This point of contact 
is calledjhej^synapse." The ease with which the nervous 
excitation passes from one neurone to another at the 
synapse decides what path it shall take. It follows the 
path of least resistance. If the resistance is great, then 
the flow of energy is checked in that particular direction 
and must find other ways of discharge. 

The ease with which the transmission is made from one 
neurone to another depends either upon inherited condi- 
tions, or upon conditions that develop during the Hfe of 
the individual. In either case we find, as has already 
been said, preferred paths of conduction; that is, paths 



NERVOUS SYSTEM 



113 



along which the excitation tends to flow under ordinary 
conditions. 

There are, however, times, as, for example, in the case of emo- 
tional stress, when the old channels of discharge are no longer 
adequate, and new paths are formed. The more often the new 
paths are traversed, the less becomes the resistance at the synapses, 
and the more Ukely are the excitations to follow these new paths. 

The flow of nervous excitation is supposed to be in 
one direction, and that only. The dendrite receives the 
excitation and transmits it toward the cell body, while 
the axone carries the outgoing excitation. 

Classes of Neurones. — There are three classes of 
neurones : those that receive a stimulation from a sense 
organ and conduct it inward are called " sensory " neu- 
rones ; those that convey a stimulation outward toward 
a muscle are known as the "motor" neurones; the 
third class of neurones connect the sensory and motor 
neurones and are called for this reason "associating" 
neurones. These three kinds of neurones are not es- 
sentially different in structure, although the sensory 
neurones are so constructed as to " pick up " differ- 
ent kinds of excitation, such as stimuH of Hght, sound, 
pressure, temperature, and smell. However, the way in 
which they act depends largely upon their position in 
the nervous system. Those that are connected with the 
organs of sensation are of necessity the ones that receive 
the ingoing excitation, while those that end in the mus- 
cles are the parts in the chain that are directly respon- 



114 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

sible for movement. The neurones higher up serve as 
bridges between the incoming and the outgoing excita- 
tions. It must be remembered that this connection be- 
tween sensory excitation and motor response is the condi- 
tion of all experience; that sensation is incomplete without 
response; and that the nervous system tends always to 
act in this sensori-motor way. We shall see later the sig- 
nificance of this fact in our experience and its importance 
in all learning. 

The Central Nervous System. — In the higher ani- 
mals and in man, by far a larger part of these neurones 
are to be found in the "central nervous system," which 
comprises the brain and the spinal cord. Outside of 
the central nervous system are to be found collections 
of nervous elements which together make up what is 
known as the " sympathetic nervous system." 

In man and the higher animals the general appearance 
of the central nervous system is practically the same. 
At the top of the cord there is a budding out into the 
" medulla," and above this the great mass of nervous 
substance contained within the skull and called collec- 
tively the brain. This has many different parts, but 
only a few of the most important can be mentioned here. 
The larger part of the brain consists of the "cerebrum," 
divided into " hemispheres," and showing a corrugated 
surface, with folds and fissures. At the back and below 
the cerebrum is a smaller mass of nervous substance that 
is given the name of the " cerebellum," or little brain. 



Cer, 




Fig. 6. — Complete view of nervous system. On the left the nervous system 
is seen in relation to the body ; on the right it is represented as removed from the 
body and viewed from the front. Cer., the cerebrum ; Cb., the cerebellum ; Sp. C, 
the spinal cord. The Roman numerals from / to XII inclusive in the right- 
hand figure indicate the twelve pairs of " cranial nerves," nerves not passing 
through the spinal cord, but entering the brain directly. Below are to be seen 
the roots of the " spinal nerves " and attached to these at one side, the left, is 
shown the cord of the sympathetic nervous system ; on the other side, the right, 
this cord has been removed. The letter M indicates the medulla, the budding out 
of the spinal cord at the top. (From Angell, " Psychology," Figs. 12 and 13.) 

IIS 



Il6 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

Below the cerebrum at the base of the brain and still in- 
cluded within the skull cavity are other masses of nerv- 
ous substance that make up the "lower gangha." 

Within this central nervous system are to be found 
about eleven thousand milHon separate neurones, ap- 
parently mingled together in the greatest confusion, but 
nevertheless under normal conditions working in perfect 
harmony and leading to behavior that is definite and 
well-ordered. The confusion, then, is apparent, not 
real. This wonderful organization that produces har- 
mony among so great a number of parts is due, as has 
already been pointed out, to two facts : (i) in the in- 
tricate windings of the nervous elements there are cer- 
tain definite paths that are inborn ; and (2) many other 
such paths are gradually opened up after the individual 
has passed beyond the period of embryonic or prenatal 
development and has entered upon life as a separate 
organism. 

The Functions of the Central Nervous System, (i) 
The Cord. — The various parts of the nervous system 
show a certain degree of speciahzation ; that is, they do 
not all perform exactly the same kind of work. 

The spinal cord is the great channel of communi- 
I cation between lower centers and those higher up. There 
are ascending and descending paths of conduction. Ex- 
citations arising from the sense organs in the skin and va- 
rious internal structures are conveyed to the brain, where 
these excitations are related to certain specific sensations 



NERVOUS SYSTEM II7 

and where in turn excitations may be sent out to various 
muscles. If the cord is seriously injured, these sensations 
are no longer possible, and the activity of those muscles 
lying below the point of injury ceases ; in other words, 
paralysis results. It is as if the wires in a part of the 
telephone system had been cut, so that no communication 
could be received at the central office and no messages 
could be sent out. 

However, there are nerves that enter the brain at its base, known 
as the "cranial nerves," and these do not pass through the cord. 
Hence such nerves would be unaffected by an injury to the cord, 
and these could still carry the ingoing excitations and send out the 
response to the muscles with which they are connected just as if 
nothing had happened. So an individual with an injured cord 
might not be aware of a touch on the hand or the prick of a pin on 
the leg, might be unable to move his limbs, and stUl be able to see 
and hear and move the muscles of his eyes and face in the usual 
way. 

The cord not only conveys excitations to centers lying 
higher up ; it not only carries excitations from the higher 
motor centers to various muscles ; it can act to a degree 
independently of these higher centers. It can imme- 
diately transmit a sensory impulse to a motor neurone or 
a number of these, and behavior can result without the 
brain taking any part in this behavior. In other words, 
there are " associating " neurones in the cord itself. 
This transmission may be between neurones at the same 
level in the cord, or between a neurone at one level and a 
neurone at another lying higher up, or still again between 



Il8 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

a neurone lying on one side of the cord and a neurone 
lying on the opposite side. The most simple instance of 
transfer is when the discharge passes from one neurone 
to another at the same level and on the same side of the 
cord, thus involving the activity of but two neurones. 
Usually the relation is much more complex than this. 
Between the top of the cord and the cell bodies lying 
near the surface of the cerebrum, and constituting the 
" cortex," there are to be found transfers of a much more 
elaborate and complex character, but still essentially 
Kke the more simple transfers lower down. 

(2) The Cerebral Cortex. — The most intricate of these 
transfers or " coordinations " is in the cerebral cortex 
itself, the most highly organized portion of all the 
nervous structure, and the last to develop in the race and 
in the individual. The cortex is the outer structure 
or " barl£ " of the cerebrum. It is made up of a vast 
number of cell bodies of neurones. The axones of^these 
cortical neurones form a large part of the Eternal 
" white " matter of the cerebrum. 

Certain parts of the cerebral cortex are chiefly con- 
cerned in the reception of sensory excitations that arise 
in the external world, while others direct the proper 
response of the muscles. The former are known as 
" sensory areas " and the latter as " motor areas." 

The sensory areas that are marked out with consider- 
able definiteness are concerned with sight and hearing. 
The motor region in the cortex not only sends out 



R M 




Fig. 7. — Localization of function in the cerebral cortex. The upper figure shows 
the mesial surface of the left hemisphere of the brain ; the lower, the outer surface of 
the right hemisphere. The motor areas are indicated by horizontal shading ; the 
sensory areas, by vertical shading ; the association areas remain unshaded. The 
areas containing dots are either partially sensory or motor in their function, or 
doubtful. The auditory area lies above H ; V marks the visual area ; M is above 
the motor area; FA marks the frontal, PA the parietal, and TA the temporal 
association areas. (From Pillsbury,*" Essentials of Psychology," Fig. 7.) 

119 



I20 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

impulses to the muscles, but it also receives excita- 
tions due to the activity of these muscles, and thus we 
become conscious of the activity of these muscles, al- 
though we may not see the movements that are made. 
For this reason we can walk or write with our eyes closed. 

Certain parts of the cortex do not seem to have any 
definite sensory or motor areas, and it is believed that 
these parts of the cerebrum are chiefly concerned in con- 
necting other parts. These regions are, for this reason, 
known as the " association areas," and they are sup- 
posed to be intimately connected with the higher thought 
processes. 

Consciousness Correlated with Cortical Activity. — 
Whether consciousness is connected with all of the activi- 
ties of the nervous system or not is a question not easy 
to answer, but it is clear that the more developed forms 
of consciousness are in some way related to the activities 
of the cerebral cortex. In man these higher activities 
take on such importance, and the consciousness accom- 
panying them is so complex, that all more simple and 
rudimentary forms of consciousness are necessarily 
obscured. 

In the blazing light of day no one would suspect that the stars 
were sending forth their light. This is so sHght that it means 
nothing in addition to the brilliancy of the sun. So it is with those 
weaker forms of consciousness that may perchance attend the activi- 
ties of the lower brain and the cord. If they do exist they cannot 
be recognized, since they contribute so Uttle to the total light of 
consciousness. Whether they are present or not, they appear to 



NERVOUS SYSTEM 121 

have nothing whatever to do in controlling the behavior con- 
nected with these parts of the nervous system whose activities 
may be thought of as entirely automatic and without conscious 
control. 

Inhibition, and Facilitation. — Up to this point we 
have considered the nervous system as a means for re- 
ceiving excitations and for transferring them into action. 
While this is the general purpose of nervous activity, it 
does not follow in every instance that excitation im- 
mediately issues in action. In the lower centers it 
happens that, under normal conditions, stimulation and 
positive response are joined in invariable sequence. 
The higher centers, however, not only facilitate response ; 
at times they check response. Here we observe the 
phenomena of " inhibition " and control that character- 
ize the higher intellectual activities. It is a well-known 
fact that yielding to every impulse, distraction, and 
whim is an indication of a weak or undeveloped mind. 
DeHberation and decision mean that there must be a 
check on hasty and uncontrolled behavior. The lower 
centers, if left to themselves, respond to their customary 
excitations in definite and unvarying ways. They may 
act to a purpose, but in a quite irrational way. The 
cortical neurones exercise a control over the activities 
of the lower lying neurones and serve to check their 
activity when the necessity arises. 



122 human behavior 

Definitions and Explanation of Terms Used 

Involuntary action. — Behavior not controlled by con- 
sciousness. 

Sense organ. — A special device, such as the eye and 
the ear, that receives stimulation from the external 
world. 

Preferred paths of conduction. — Definitely worn chan- 
nels in the nervous system along which excitations flow 
in much the same manner as a stream follows a river bed. 
While these channels are assumed to exist, they cannot be 
seen even with the most powerful microscope. 

Neurone. — A single element of nervous substance of 
which the entire nervous system is composed. There 
are about eleven thousand million neurones in the 
nervous system of the human adult. 

Cell body. — The central portion of the neurone. 

Process. — An outgrowth from the cell body of the 
neurone. 

Axone. — One of the two processes of a neurone ; a 
long, threadlike growth, sometimes several feet long, con- 
stituting, with its white covering (the "medullary 
sheath "), the typical nerve fiber. 

Dendrite. — The other process of a neurone, shorter 
and resembling in appearance a thick shrub or tree; 
hence its name. 

End-brush. — The branching termination of an axone. 

Synapse. — The point of contact between two neu- 



NERVOUS SYSTEM 1 23 

rones. There is no actual joining, but the end-brush of 
the axone interweaves with the branches of the dendrite 
of another neurone. 

Sensory, motor, and associating neurones. — Neurones 
receiving the stimulation from an end organ are called 
sensory; those conveying the stimulation to the muscles, 
motor; and those connecting these, associating neurones.. 

Sensori-motor activity. — No excitation is complete 
without some form of response. All stimulation tends to 
express itself in movement. 

Central nervous system. — This includes the brain, with 
all its various parts (cerebrum, cerebellum, lower ganglia, 
and other parts), and the spinal cord with the medulla 
growing out at the top. Outside of the central nervous 
system are collections of nervous elements, or ganglia, 
comprising the sympathetic nervous system. 

Cerebrum. — The name given to the upper mass of the 
brain. In all higher animals, and particularly in man, 
this composes the larger part of the nervous substance 
within the skull cavity. It is divided into equal hemi- 
spheres. 

Cerebellum. — The " little brain," below and at the 
back of the cerebrum. 

Cranial nerves. — Twelve pairs of nerves enter the 
brain without first passing through the cord. They have 
to do chiefly with the senses of sight, hearing, taste, and 
smell and with certain movements connected with the 
face and eyes. 



124 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

Cerebral cortex. — The cerebrum is covered with a 
layer of nerve cells known as the " cortex," or covering. 
In all high animals this is the most important part of the 
nervous system, as far as its connection with conscious- 
ness is concerned. 

Areas of localization of the cortex. — Different parts of 
.the cortex are connected with various sensations and with 
various kinds of behavior. Sensory areas, related to 
sight, hearing, and touch, have been definitely mapped 
out. A motor area, that sends out impulses to various 
muscles and also receives excitations coming from these 
muscles when in activity, has likewise been located. 
Motor neurones are found in smaller numbers in certain 
other portions of the cortex. There are also association 
areas in the front and at the sides of the cortex, and 
these seem to have something to do in relation to the 
higher intellectual activities. 

Inhibition. — An activity of the higher centers in the 
nervous system that checks, represses, and holds in con- 
trol some of the activities of lower centers. 

Questions and Exercises 

1. In what different ways does the amoeba's behavior resemble 
that of the more highly organized animals ? What differences in 
behavior between the two forms ? 

2. What specialized sets of cells in the higher animals are 
concerned with locomotion? With digestion? With respira- 
tion? 

3. What is the nervous system, as a specialized set of cells, 
concerned with ? 



NERVOUS SYSTEM 1 25 

4. Describe a typical neurone, naming its three parts. How 
are the excitations transferred from neurone to neurone? What 
is meant by the "synapse" ? 

5. Name the three classes of neurones. The sense organs 
might be termed the "end stations" of sensory neurones.. Name 
the sense organs, and state the kind of information that each 
"picks up." 

6. What is the function of the motor neurones ? What is the 
function of the associating neurones ? 

7. What do you understand by the term "central nervous 
system" ? What are its chief divisions, and what is the function of 
each ? 

8. What is meant by the cortex of the cerebrum, and of what 
is it chiefly composed ? What reasons can you give for believing 
that the cerebral cortex is the part of the brain that is chiefly 
concerned with "conscious" activities — sensation, perception, 
memory, thought, etc. ? 

9. What areas of the cortex are probably concerned with 
sight? With hearing? With sensations of movement? In 
what part are the cell bodies of motor neurones most frequent ? 

10. What is meant by inhibition? How does the cortex 
exercise inhibition on the movements otherwise controlled by the 
spinal cord ? 



CHAPTER VIII 
REFLEX AND INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR 

We have now sufficiently described the structure and 
activity of the nervous system to discuss somewhat in 
detail the nature of the various types of behavior that are 
to be considered as directed entirely by nervous activity 
and are not to be looked upon as under the control of 
consciousness. 

Reflex Behavior. — In Chapter I we spoke of reflex 
behavior and gave as an example of this the action of the 
eye when light of different degrees of intensity affects 
that organ. When the illumination is intense, the size 
of the pupil is small ; when it is weak, the pupil grows 
larger. In this case the excitation, due to the light acting 
upon the eye, is carried along sensory nerves to certain 
centers where it is directly carried over or " reflected " 
to motor neurones that send their discharge to the mus- 
cles which control the size of the pupil. In this case, 
stimulation results directly in a definite response. There 
is no intervention of consciousness in any way, and the 
whole activity is the result of a certain definite inherited 
arrangement in the eye itself. The course of the nervous 
stimulation and discharge is fixed during the period before 
birth and is fully marked out at birth. Another reflex 

126 



REFLEX AND INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR _ 1 27 

activity that has been discussed is that of winking. Here, 
as in the case of the reflex mechanism of the pupil of the 
eye, the activity is due to the fact that there is an in- 
herited path between the excitation and the response 
to this excitation. Numerous other examples of reflex 
activity might be cited, such as coughing, sneezing, swal- 
lowing, and sucking. They are all to be explained in 
the same way, — namely, in terms of inherited paths of 
preferred conduction between stimulation and response. 
The ease with which the stimulation traverses the nerv- 
ous system from its beginning in the sense organs to its 
end in the muscles is conditioned largely on the openness 
of certain of these paths at the synapses. When the 
discharge of nervous energy is facihtated at these points 
of contact between the neurones, then the whole process 
is direct and certain, and the activity is "reflected " from 
the sensory to the motor neurones without difficulty. 

Instinctive Behavior. ^ — Besides the simple reflex activi- 
ties, such as those that have been enumerated above, 
there are reflexes of a much more complicated nature. 
When several simple reflexes act together to bring about 
a certain form of desirable behavior, the result is called 
" instinctive activity." In the first chapter, a typical 
form was briefly discussed, — namely, the tendency of 
human beings and animals to draw away from an un- 
pleasant or dangerous object. In such a form of behavior 
a number of reflexes are involved, all working together 
to bring about the desired end. None of them, however, 



128 ^ HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

are controlled by consciousness or dependent upon ex- 
perience. In Chapter II, other instincts, such as play, 
imitation, and curiosity, were briefly touched on. 

Characteristics of Instinctive Behavior. — In all of 
these the fundamental characteristics of instinctive 
activities are to be noticed: (i) They are all directed 
toward some end that is useful. (2) They are all made 
up of various simple reflex activities. (3) They are all 
outside of voluntary direction. (4) None of them have 
been learned, and all must be thought of as depending 
upon inherited paths of conduction in the nervous system. 

One of the most complicated of instincts in animals, 
and one often cited, is that of nest building among birds. 
The bird does not learn to build its nest ; it is not aware 
of the reason that exists for building it ; but is moved by an 
impulse that it does not comprehend to go about the con- 
struction of the home for its young, of whose coming it has 
no knowledge. The bird is conscious of its actions to an 
extent, but this consciousness must be thought of as the 
accompaniment rather than as the cause of the instinctive 
behavior. In the nest-building activity of the bird, 
and probably in all such activities, whether manifested 
by animals or human beings, there is a certain amount 
oi feeling that accompanies the instinct. Thus there is a 
close relation between instinct on the one hand and feeling 
and emotion on the other hand. 

The Adaptive Instincts. — Attention has already 
been called to the tendency of the little child to imitate 



REPLEX AND INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR 1 29 

what he sees others doing. He does not know why 
he imitates ; he simply sees a movement and copies 
it, finding pleasure in the mere act of copying. Once 
he has imitated successfully, he is likely to repeat 
spontaneously that which he first imitated, — again 
not because he recognizes that this repetition will 
perfect the movement, but simply for the pleasure that 
the repetition gives. Moreover, he will take to pieces the 
mechanical toy that he is playing with, not because he 
recognizes that he may learn something that will be of 
benefit to him later, but for the pure deHght of finding out 
how it works, — of satisfying his curiosity. 

These are general tendencies that are native or inborn, 
and it is clear that they are very useful in adapting the 
child to the world into which he is born. Through imi- 
tation he acquires very quickly the type of behavior that 
those about him employ. He does not have to learn 
this behavior laboriously and slowly as the race learned it ; 
rather, he leaps at once, as it were, upon the shoulders of 
the generations that have preceded. It took thousands 
of years for our language to assume its present form, but 
through imitation the child learns to use this language 
in a few years. Our remote ancestors did not eat with 
forks ; indeed, the art of eating with the fork has been 
developed within the last few centuries; but the child 
to-day is born into a world of forks, and through imita- 
tion he quickly learns an art which the race acquired only 
after a long period of development. Our great-grand- 



130 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

fathers made fire with flint, steel, and tinder. They 
learned this art by imitating those about them. We have 
lost the art now — or rather we have let it die — because 
other and better means of making fire have been de- 
veloped ; but it is through imitation that these improved 
means are passed on to the next generation. 

Similarly, the instinct of curiosity leads the child to 
pry into the world about him, — to find out all he can 
about his surroundings. This cooperates with the in- 
stinct of imitation in adapting him to the Hfe that he 
must live, — for some of the gains that man has made 
have been crystallized in utensils, implements, machines, 
and other devices, as well as in definite actions and ad- 
justments. Acquaintance with the latter is gained by 
imitation, but the prying instinct of the child enables 
him to gain some knowledge of the former far in advance 
of any immediate need for using them. And besides this, 
there is the great world of natural objects some of which 
he must know and recognize, and here, too, the prying 
instinct is of great service. 

"Vpiay has also been referred to as an adaptive instinct. 
The delight that the child takes in activity simply for 
the sake of activity gives him a control over his muscles. 
He learns how to make different movements, and how 
to put different elements of movement together to make 
new combinations, — to " coordinate " movements, as the 
process is called. 

These adaptive instincts are emphasized at this point 



KEFLEX AND INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR I3I 

because they are especially important to human educa- 
tion, — they are the instinctive bases upon which the 
teacher and the parent must build. They are also 
mentioned first because they clearly illustrate the im- 
portant features already referred to of all instinctive 
activities. But other instincts are also important to edu- 
cation, and also illustrate these characteristic features. 

The Individualistic Instincts. — Avery significant group 
is made up of the individualistic instincts. This name is 
given because the activities make for the preservation and 
welfare of the individual and often come into conflict 
with the welfare of others. Prominent among these are 
the fighting instinct, the predatory instinct, and the self- 
assertive instinct. The fighting instinct is represented 
by the inborn tendency to seek physical combat with 
those who threaten one's welfare, invade one's rights, 
appropriate or destroy one's property. The predatory 
instinct impels one to appropriate or destroy the property 
of others. The self-assertive instinct leads to display, 
domineering, and other activities which, under primitive 
conditions, tended to excite in others the instinct of self- 
abasement and the act of subjugation. 

These instincts, also, have their affective and emotional 
accompaniments. The activity of fighting is accom- 
panied by the feeling of resentment, by the " lust of 
combat." If the instinct is " blocked " or if it cannot 
be adequately expressed, it gives rise to a pronounced 
emotion of anger, which may even take the more violent 



132 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

form of rage or frenzy. The expression of the predatory 
instinct is normally accompanied by the feeling of vindic- 
tiveness; if the expression is blocked, it may give rise to 
the emotion of hate. The self-assertive instinct is charac- 
terized by the feelings of pride, vanity, and arrogance; but 
if the expression is futile, — if one's pride is not respected, 
or if one's vanity excites only contempt, — then the emo- 
tions of shame and humiliation may supervene. 

The Sex and Parental Instincts. — The sex and parental 
instincts are, next to the instinct of self-protection, the 
most fundamental and imperious in the human organism. 
Indeed, the parental instinct may negate all others, and 
impel the individual to sacrifice even life itself for the 
sake of the offspring. The sex instinct is the basis of 
conjugal love ; the parental instinct, of parental love. 
Blocking the expression of the sex instinct may arouse 
the emotion of sex jealousy ; while inability adequately 
to protect the young gives rise to the most intense form 
of the emotion of grief. 

The Social Instincts. — A fourth class of instincts is 
given the designation, " social," and is represented by 
the tendency to compete with others, — the instinct of 
rivalry ; by the tendency to congregate in groups, — 
the gregarious instinct; by the tendency to cooperate 
with others, — the cooperative instinct ; and by the 
tendency to aid others who are weaker or who are in 
distress, — the altruistic instinct. The affective and 
emotional states associated with these instincts are 



REFLEX AND INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR 1 33 

clearly marked. Rivalry is represented on the affective 
side by the feeling of emulation; lacking adequate satis- 
faction, it arouses the emotions of envy and jealousy. 
The gregarious instinct is at the basis of the important 
feehng of sociability, — the delight in human compan- 
ionship. Where this instinct cannot be gratified, — 
where the individual is removed from his kinsmen, his 
friends, and all those with whom he has been accustomed 
to ally himself, — one of the most acute emotional states 
may arise, — that yearning for human companionship 
with which the lonely castaway on the desert isle eats out 
his heart, or the more common but scarcely less acute 
" homesickness " that we have all experienced. The 
instinct of cooperation arises relatively late in individual 
development, as it also developed late in the evolution 
of the race. It is at the basis of one of the most important 
of the affective complexes, the feehng of loyalty; 
and one of the most terrible of all emotions, — and yet 
one from which some of the deepest lessons of life have 
emerged, — may supervene if loyalty fails. This is 
the emotion of remorse, and its terrors, viewed as possi- 
bihties or anticipated in imagination, form the basis of 
the ideal that lies at the very foundation of effective social 
life, — the ideal of duty. Still later in development, 
both individually and racially, the instinct of altruism 
appears. The feelings of friendly solicitude for the welfare 
of others and of delight in promoting this welfare are the 
normal accompaniments of this instinct. When adequate 



134 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

expression fails, — when aid cannot be rendered, — 
the emotions of pity and sympathy or the more intense 
emotion of grief may be aroused. 

Religious and ^Esthetic Instincts. — Certain strong 
instinctive tendencies lie at the basis of the religious life, 
and while it is impossible to say just what these in- 
stincts are, there can be no doubt of their existence. 
We are j ustified, then, in speaking, somewhat metaphor- 
ically, of the religious instincts. As these express them- 
selves in later life, they are manifested in a turning away 
from this world and in seeking in another a consolation 
that cannot be found in life as we know it. The religious 
attitude is one of the subjugation of the self in the presence 
of the overmastering power that is its object. It ex- 
presses itself in feelings of reverence, humility, and venera- 
tion. When the object that it seeks is far removed, mys- 
terious, and incomprehensible, — when all religious cere- 
monies become inadequate and approach to the divine 
power difficult, — then appears the emotion of awe. The 
individual falls prostrate before the transcendent deity 
that is beyond his comprehension and whose glory and 
majesty pass all understanding. 

The (Esthetic instincts in their cruder aspects appear at 
an early period in the history of civilization. The choral 
dance, the song, and the chant are at basis expressions of 
the instinct of rhythm. The expression of this tendency 
fills the being with a feeling of harmony, and in its intense 
form it gives rise to the emotion of ecstasy. Another phase 



REFLEX AND INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR 135 

of aesthetic development is closely connected with the atti- 
tude of contemplation. The individual forgets himself as he 
stands before the beautiful object, lost in feelings of admi- 
ration. As he recognizes in the art product the expression 
of an ideal that struggles to realize itself in the materials 
that embody it, but which at the best imperfectly realize 
this ideal, he is swept by the emotion of rapture. 

Closely related to the aesthetic instinct is the appre- 
ciation of the comic. There seems to be an innate 
tendency in human beings to note incongruities in the 
speech and behavior of their fellows, to regard all novel 
experiences that do not excite fear as something out of 
place and ludicrous. When such situations arise sud- 
denly and their outcome is unforeseen, the emotion of 
astonishment possesses the individual. 

The social, religious, and aesthetic ideals and attitudes, while 
based upon primitive instinctive tendencies, are profoundly modi- 
fied by experience. Hence it is difficult to determine just what 
instincts underlie them. For this reason, some writers separate 
them from the less complicated and clearly innate tendencies, and 
term them sentiments. 

Summary. — The relation between the primitive 
instincts and the affective states of feeling and emotion is 
so compHcated and yet so important that the following 
table is inserted in the way of summary of the preceding 
sections. It will be noted that the instincts are grouped, 
with reference to the function that they fulfill, into six 
classes. Under each class the more important specific 



136 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

instincts are listed. Following the name of each specific 
instinctive tendency is a statement (i) of its characteris- 
tic expression ; (2) of the feelings that either precede or 
accompany its normal expression ; and (3) of the emo- 
tions that are commonly aroused when the normal instinc- 
tive expression is for any reason " blocked " or prevented. 

It should be understood that the "blocking" of a desire or im- 
pulse, which, as we have seen, gives rise to an emotional experience, 
does not necessarily mean that it cannot in any way be expressed. 
It simply means that the possible expression is, for one reason or 
another, inadequate. Thus the individual, in working out an 
instinctive tendency, may get beyond the possibilities of further 
effective expression. The emotion of wonder arises, for example, 
when our curiosity is not gratified ; our j)rying and exploring fail to 
satisfy. On the other hand, when we are impelled to imitate the 
activity of some one else, we may be balked by our inability to exe- 
cute the same movement in an effective way. Then arises the 
emotion of vexation, with the usual accompaniment of aU emo- 
tions — mental confusion, intense feeling, ineffective movements. 

It should also be said with reference to the following table that 
there are certain feelings which attach to several instincts: 
for example, pride may go with the expression of the combative 
instinct and with the expression of the self-assertive instinct; 
admiration is common to the imitative and the aesthetic instincts ; 
desire, in a certain sense, is common to all of the instincts in which 
the effective movement is toward the object that arouses the in- 
stinctive activity, while dislike or aversion is common to all of the 
instincts in which the effective movement is away from the object. 
For some of the instincts (repetition and constructiveness, for ex- 
ample), words which designate the accompanying feelings do not 
exist, although there can be no doubt in either case that the ade- 
quate expression of the instinctive tendency gives rise to a pleasant 
affective "tone." 



REFLEX AND INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR 



137 







Normal Feeling 


Emotion aroused 


Name of Instinct 


Physical 
Expression 


accompanying 
Adequate 


BY "Blocking" 
OF Adequate 






Ekpression 


Expression 


Adaptive 








Imitation 


Copying acts of 
others 


Admiration 


Vexation 


Repetition 


Repeating 6ne's 
own move- 
ments 






Play 


Spontaneous ac- 


Exhilaration 


Hysterical ec- 




tivity 




stasy 


Inquisitiveness 


Prying, explor- 
ing, taking 
apart 


Curiosity 


Wonder 


Constructiveness 


Putting together 


Pleasure of con- 


Perplexity, ela- 






struction 


tion 


Migration 


Seeking new sur- 


Novelty, " Wan- 






roundings 


derlust " 




Acquisitiveness 


Collecting, 
hoarding 


Desire 


Greed, -avarice 


Individualistic 








(a) Self-Protective 








Combative 


Fighting 


Resentment 


Anger, wrath, 
frenzy 


' Retractive 








(i) Shrinking 


Hiding 


Timidity 


Terror 


(2) Fhght 


Flight 


Fear 


Despair 


Repulsive 


Thrusting away 


Dislike, dread 


Disgust 


{b) Self-assertive 








►.' v/ Self-assertion 


Strutting, preen- 


Arrogance, su- 


Shame, humilia- 


ing, domineer- 


periority, pride. 


tion 




ing 


vanity 




(c) Antisocial 








Teasing and 


Torture, insult 


Contempt 




Bullying 








Predatory 


Stealing, de- 
stroying 


Vindictiveness 


Hate 



138 



HUMAN BEHAVIOR 







Normal Feeling 


Emotion aroused 


Name of Instinct 


Physical 
Expression 


Accompanying 
Adequate 


BY "Blocking" 
of Adequate 






Expression 


Expression 


Shyness 


Withdrawal, 
seeking soli- 
tude 


Self-distrust 


Fright 


Sex and Parental 








Sex 


Mating 


Conjugal love 


Passion, sex 
jealousy 


Protection of 


Guarding, 


Parental love 


Self-renuncia- 


young 


shielding 




tion, grief 


Social 








Rivalry 


Competitive 

acts 


Emulation 


Jealousy, envy 


Gregarious 


Congregating in 


Sociability, kin- 


Homesickness, 




groups 


ship 


yearning for 
companionship 


Cooperative 


Working to- 
gether 


Loyalty 


Remorse 


Altruistic 


Helping others 


Friendliness, 


Sympathy, pity, 






solicitude 


grief 


Religious 








Self-abasement 


Subjugation 


Reverence, hu- 
mility, vener- 
ation 


Awe 


JEsthetic 








Rhythmic 


Dancing, song, 
chant 


Harmony 


Ecstasy 




Contemplation 


Admiration 


Rapture 



Definitions and Explanation oe Terms Used 

Reflex activity. — This consists in its most simple form 
of an excitation that is mechanically carried over, or 
" reflected," from a sensory to a motor neurone. Con- 
sciousness may or may not be present. In either case 
it performs no service in directing the behavior. 



REFLEX AND INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR I39 

Instinctive activity. — This consists of a complex series 
of reflex activities working together harmoniously to 
bring about a valuable form of behavior. Conscious- 
ness, while present, does not exercise control over such 
activities. 

Innate. — Something born with the individual ; dis- 
tinguished from that which is acquired. An innate 
tendency may be present at birth, or it may put in its 
appearance later. However, if it is innate, it is not gained 
through experience. 

Questions and Exercises 

1. Define reflex behavior. How is it distinguished from in- 
stinctive behavior ? Illustrate both. 

2. Name the four important characteristics of instinctive be- 
havior. 

3. Why are play, curiosity, imitation, inquisitiveness, and 
constructiveness called "adaptive" instincts? 

4. Name the principal individualistic instincts, and show the 
relation of each to self-preservation. 

5. What instincts are included in the class called "social"? 
Can you give illustrations of social instincts in animals below man ? 

6. What instinct may explain certain cases of truancy ? 

7. Note the behavior of a child (from three to seven years old) 
for a period of half an hour. What activities can you find that 
are probably due to instinctive tendencies, and to what instincts are 
they due ? , 

8. Analyze one of your dominant motives or ambitions back to 
a fundamental basis. Can you find a "core" of instinct ? What 
emotions are aroused when the realization of the motilve seems 
hopeless ? 



CHAPTER IX 
THE VALUE OF THE HUMAN INSTINCTS 

Two questions of educational importance arise in 
connection with instinct: (i) of what service are these 
primitive tendencies to behavior? what instincts must 
education try to confirm and sanction? and (2) how 
shall education go about to change the instinctive ten- 
dencies that are not valuable in their primitive form? 
The first of these questions will be answered in this 
chapter ; the second will form the theme of Chapter X. 

The Value of the Adaptive Instincts. — We have al- 
ready discussed somewhat in detail three of the most 
important of the adaptive instincts (namely, imitation, 
play, and curiosity) and have shown, particularly in 
regard to play, its value in preparing the individual with 
a set of acts and a stock of experiences that will be of 
service to him later on in Ufe. What is true of these two 
instincts is likewise true of the other adaptive instincts. 
The squirrel collects nuts for the coming winter, al- 
though it does not need them at present and although it 
has no knowledge of its future needs. A similar instinct 
prompts the bee to gather honey, although the insect has 
no idea that it will be of use at some future time. In a 

140 



THE VALUE OF THE HUMAN INSTINCTS 14! 

like manner, the human being prepares for a future that 
he cannot foresee. The collecting and hoarding instinct 
in the child has not in civilized communities so direct a 
value as it has in the cases of the animals above cited ; 
nevertheless, by means of making these collections the 
child may learn much that will be useful to him later 
on in his experience. Like the play instinct, the collect- 
ing instinct may be used by the teacher as a means of in- 
direct instruction. The collection of stamps and coins, 
for example, may awaken an interest in and give a cer- 
tain acquaintance with foreign countries and thus serve 
as a valuable aid in the study of geography and history ; 
the gathering and preserving of various flowers and insects 
may be of help in nature study, and so on. 

The constructive instinct is clearly of great value to 
the individual, and may be made of service in education. 
It in part explains the interest that most pupils show 
in manual training, and in cooking, sewing, and other 
domestic arts. 

Repetition likewise has great educational significance. 
Through the tendency to repeat, it becomes possible 
for the child to establish those forms of behavior that are 
the most beneficial, and it is of no small service when in- 
tentionally utilized by the teacher as a means of imparting 
knowledge and of forming useful habits. Since repetition 
is important as a means of learning, it is indeed fortunate 
that there is a natural tendency on the part of the child 
to repeat. Here a sound educational method and a 



142 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

predisposition on the part of the learner work together to 
bring about the desired result. 

The Value of the Individualistic Instincts. — The in- 
stincts of combativeness, retraction, and flight have less 
value in present-day civiHzation than they possessed in 
the past. Among animals and primitive peoples the 
fear of the unknown, of the dark, of certain animals such 
as insects and reptiles, of objects with fetid odors, was 
very important in protecting the individual against the 
ever present dangers that lurked in the forest and the 
cave, that threatened life in the ambush of the enemy, 
the lair of the beast, and the very air that one breathed. 
In these earUer days the fearless must soon have perished. 
Combativeness and pugnacity, too, had their place in 
the hut and the cabin, the forest and jungle. A calm 
attitude, a lack of emotion, a calculating coolness, be- 
long more to modern society than they did to the sava- 
gery of the past. Further, when there were few recdgnized 
laws and no means of enforcing them, existence de- 
pended largely on the ability and the will to fight. 
Combativeness was an essential in the struggle to sur- 
vive, and the fighting instinct was indispensable. 

While the usefulness of combativeness, retraction, and 
flight in the primitive stages of stress and struggle must 
be recognized, it is held by many that these crass im- 
pulses are no longer valuable and should have no place 
in the modern world. To an extent this assumption is 
right. There are many fears that humanity should have 



THE VALUE OF THE HUMAN INSTINCTS 143 

outgrown, and these should be banished from the mind 
of the child as soon as possible ; certainly they should 
never be fostered, as they sometimes are by unwise 
parents and negligent nurses. Superstitious dread, irra- 
tional terrors, and the like must be removed. It is 
wrong to tell the child that the " bogey-man " will 
catch him, or that a tiger is lurking in the dark ready 
to devour him. Such fears as these fill the mind with 
dread and accompKsh no lasting good. However, it must 
be remembered that there are rational fears, and that due 
caution is extremely valuable in the affairs of Kfe. The 
problem here is to change the reference of fear, — to detach 
it from the objects that naturally arouse it, — and to attach 
it to other objects. This is the problem of the next chapter, 
however, and need not detain us at this point. 

The distinctly anti-social instincts have little in their 
favor under present-day conditions. Teasing and bully- 
ing, which are common practices among boys, may serve 
to keep the young upstart in his proper place and to 
make the eccentric and peculiar child conform to the 
group ; in so far, this instinct is social rather than the 
opposite ; so, too, mild forms of fagging and hazing 
may result beneficially, but on the whole this spirit is 
dangerous to the school and community life, and if 
tolerated at all, should be held strictly within bounds. 

The predatory instinct combined with the gregarious 
instinct leads boys to form gangs and commit all sorts of 
offenses against property. In some of its expressions it 



144 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

is not necessarily an indication of moral delinquency and 
should not be regarded too seriously, yet it may lead to 
the most unhappy consequences if given free scope. 
This is one of the instincts that should be repressed as 
far as possible. The highwayman and the viking belong 
to the past. They are out of place in modern life. 

The spirit of adventure, which is alHed both to the 
predatory instinct and to the instinct of migration, 
expresses itself not always in deeds of disorder and 
violence. It sometimes leads the young person to leave 
home and " seek his fortune " in the great world outside 
of his home environment. This impulse to rove served a 
very useful purpose in the earHer development of society, 
but it is a dangerous tendency in a boy of the school 
age, and sometimes ends in grave results. 

The Value of the Social Instincts. — The social 
instincts are of the greatest importance and form the 
clearest examples of instincts that education must 
foster and confirm. The desire for companionship is 
common to all normal human beings and even manifests 
itself, often in a very marked manner, in the "herding 
instincts " of the lower animals. Children at a very 
early age seek the companionship of other children. One 
of the greatest misfortunes that can befall a child is to 
be left entirely or even largely in the society of adults. 
The lonely child deprived of actual playmates, not in- 
frequently creates imaginary companions with whom he 
plays in fancy, and thus in a way attempts to make up 



THE VALUE OF THE HUMAN INSTINCTS I45 

in this unreal manner for the vital lack of actual associ- 
ates. The young person and the adult, Uke the child, 
are social beings, and bereft of society, they are generally 
wretched. There is no punishment so severe as that of 
solitary confinement. 

The instinct of cooperation has been a powerful force 
in building up the community life. The history of civili- 
zation has been that of the gradual expansion of sym- 
pathy and understanding among ever widening groups. 
From the family it has extended to the tribe and then to 
the state and nation. The present century promises to 
carry it beyond the confines of national barriers and 
to see a real federation of mankind, based upon a mutual 
comprehension and a common feeling. 

Rivalry is to be classed as an instinct of a social nature, 
since through it a large amount of social progress has 
been brought about. Competition has sometimes been 
thought of as something essentially base and unworthy. 
It is maintained by some that it is this spirit that fills 
our reformatories and prisons. This point of view is so 
radical that it carries with it its own refutation. Com- 
petition is not bad in itself ; like everything else it may 
become an evil if carried to an extreme. If abnormally 
strong tendencies to rivalry have filled our penal institu- 
tions, it is equally true that abnormally weak tendencies 
to compete have filled our almshouses. Competition 
among human beings does not necessarily nor generally 
mean a bitter hand-to-hand struggle for existence, in 



146 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

which the weak are ruthlessly pushed aside and left to 
perish. It means rather a more or less conscious attempt 
on the part of the individual to achieve certain ends that 
have been set up as social ideals. Of necessity it is true 
that in the striving for these ends some will outstrip 
others in the race ; some will arrive at the goal, or at least 
get reasonably near it, while others will be left far behind ; 
and the force of rivalry in Hfe depends upon this primitive 
factor. The instinct of rivalry, Hke the fighting instinct, 
must be modified if it is to be thoroughly serviceable. 

The Value of the Religious Instincts. — Much has 
been said and written in recent years in regard to the 
innate tendency in the large majority of human beings 
to turn their attention toward the supernatural and to 
seek in another world a consolation that this cannot 
afford. The religious instinct is extremely complex 
and manifests itself under various forms. There can, 
however, be little doubt that there is a fundamental 
instinctive attitude of the normal human being toward 
the universe that may be called religious. The definite 
form that this instinct takes is largely the result of his 
surroundings, and of the specific form of religious ed- 
ucation to which he is subjected. The fundamental ten- 
dency, however, must be considered as innate and in no 
sense acquired, although the specific expression that the 
religious attitude takes is not the result of inheritance. 
It is due rather to the prevaiUng social ideals that the 
individual quite unconsciously appropriates and to the 



THE VALUE OF THE HUMAN INSTINCTS 147 

kind of religious teaching the child may have received 
in the home and the school. One of the most important 
problems that the school is called upon to solve at the 
present time is the extent and kind of religious instruction 
that should be provided. In the United States dogmatic 
instruction in any form of rehgious belief cannot be given 
to the children in the pubHc schools . The instruction must 
be indirect in its nature ; nevertheless it should be suf- 
ficiently vital to appeal to those deep-lying tendencies in 
human experience that relate themselves to another 
world. The rehgious instinct is not decaying, as some 
would have us to beheve. Specific forms of rehgious 
behef, together with certain kinds of rehgious practices, 
have been brought into question. But there is as strong 
a faith as ever in those fundamental experiences which 
men call rehgious. The rehgious instinct is still vital, 
and there is no reason to believe that in the advance of 
modern society the necessity for a supreme being has 
been put aside. The religious inatinct is basal to human 
progress and happiness. ' It cannot be regarded as a rehc 
of the superstition of our uncultured ancestors. 

Questions and Exercises 

1 . What instinctive tendencies can education employ in further- 
ing its own ends ? What tendencies should be confirmed by educa- 
tion ? What tendencies should be modified ? 

2. In what ways may the school employ the instinct of play? 
The instinct of imitation ? 

3. Give illustrations of the useful and harmful employment of 
the instinct of rivalry. 



148 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

4. It has been suggested that the school should stimulate 
rivalry between groups rather than between individuals. How 
may this be accomplished ? What instinct would be appealed to 
in group rivalry ? 

5. What reasons can you give for considering the religious 
attitude as based fundamentally upon instinct ? 

6. At what time in the life of the individual is it likely to most 
definitely show itself ? Do you make any distinction between the 
religious attitude of the child and that of the youth and adult ? 



CHAPTER X 

HOW INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR MAY BE 
CHANGED 

The ability profoundly to change inherited behavior 
through experience is the most important human charac- 
teristic. It is this factor that hfts man above the brute, 
for while the lower animals may modify instinctive 
tendencies within certain limits, these limits are narrowly 
circumscribed. Furthermore, the lower animals do not 
have to modify their instincts profoundly in order to 
live the Ufe of their species. But man in order to he man 
must get beyond instinct. The behavior that is dis- 
tinctively human is that kind that has been changed to 
suit the stage of development that the race has reached. 

All Education Must Begin with Instinct. — But educa- 
tion must always start with instinct, and — however 
far above the primitive plane it may carry the individual 
— it must rest in the last analysis upon instinctive ten- 
dencies. In the last chapter, it was shown that certain 
instincts, even in a relatively unmodified form, have a 
utiHty in civiHzed human life. Some of these (the adap- 
tive instincts of play, curiosity, imitation, repetition, and 
constructiveness) lead the individual to modify his be- 

149 



150 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

havior for himself, — that is, without the aid of a guide or 
teacher. The task of education here is to give these adap- 
tive tendencies a chance to operate in a helpful way, — 
to set desirable " copies " for imitation ; to provide 
space and companionship and leaders for healthful plays ; 
to give curiosity something to pry into and explore 
that will yield valuable knowledge; to give the con- 
structive instinct objects to work upon. 

Beyond these instincts that are useful in their original 
form, however, are a large number of others that must 
be changed or transformed. The present chapter will 
discuss the various ways in which desirable changes 
may be effected. 

The Modification of Instinct. — (a) The Attachment 
of Another Feeling with its Appropriate Response to an 
Object that Naturally Arouses an Undesirable Instinct. — • 
This is the simplest method of modifying an instinct, and 
is in fact the only one that can be effectively employed in 
the training of animals and in the earliest stages of the 
child's education. The most common form that this 
method takes is that of physical punishment. The 
efficiency of physical punishment lies in the fact that the 
feeling of fear and the movement of retraction or flight 
are associated with an object that would naturally arouse 
another feeling and another movement. Thus the child 
must learn to repress his acquisitive instinct. Nature 
tells him to appropriate the object that pleases him ; 
but civilized society is possible only when men respect 



HOW INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR MAY BE CHANGED 151 

the property rights of others. We simply cannot in this 
world appropriate every object that pleases us. We 
must learn to repress — to " inhibit " — this tendency, 
and to learn this thoroughly means beginning very early 
in life to distinguish between the objects that we may 
take and those that we must leave. Thus when the child 
appropriates a forbidden object, the careful parent sees 
to it that the act results unpleasantly. In the course of 
time, — perhaps even after the first disastrous experience, 
— the object that originally stimulated the desire for 
possession now stimulates the instinct of withdrawal or 
retraction, ^and the feeling of fear. 

This may be clearly observed in children during the second year 
of life. Some objects the child will touch and play with freely. 
In his attitude toward others you will often note an initial reaching 
movement ; then the hand falls back, and perhaps the child with- 
draws from the neighborhood of the object. In the course of time, 
the actual advance and withdrawal cease. Inhibition has become a 
habit with reference to this particular forbidden object ; the temp- 
tation is no longer felt ; the instinctive tendency has been effec- 
tively modified. 

This conquering of instinct probably requires no 
memory image of the first disastrous experience. No 
judgment is necessary ; the child does not say to himself, 
" I took this object before, and was punished ; now I 
will leave it alone." The unpleasant affection imme- 
diately colors the perception of the object, just as, 
before correction, a pleasant affection was a part of the 
immediate perception. 



152 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

The reader may find examples of this immediate fusion of the 
unpleasant experience with its object by recalling the way in which 
he looks upon some article of food which, through over-indulgence, 
or for some other reason, has caused nausea. For some time after- 
ward, one does not like to see the article in question, for the un- 
pleasant affective coloring is immediately fused with the percep- 
tion. 

The Significance oj the Unpleasant in Moral Training. 
— It is difl&cult to overestimate, in connection with the 
problem of moral training, the importance of this fun- 
damental method of modifying instinct. Moral culture 
consists primarily in shifting the emphasis which nature 
has placed upon certain acts and activities. We no longer 
need to fear the dark; the feehngs of disgust and re- 
pulsion no longer need attach to certain objects that 
were dangerous in primitive life ; but we do need to fear 
evil, and we do need to attach to certain tendencies that 
may have been very important in primitive life the 
feeling of disgust that will lead us to thrust them out 
of our presence. Aristotle, centuries ago, suggested 
that the primary problem of moral culture is to lead the 
individual to love the good and to hate the bad. Love 
and hate imply feelings and emotions that originally 
attach to certain instincts. Education faces the problem 
of detaching these feelings from the objects that originally 
stimulated them, and attaching them (with their appropri- 
ate responses) to other and often vastly different objects. 

This suggests the importance of thus modifying undesirable in- 
stincts very early in the child's life. Unless unsocial tendencies 



HOW INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR MAY BE CHANGED 1 53 

bring unpleasant consequences, they are bound to become con- 
firmed, and the difiiculty of eliminating them is increased tenfold. 
The years of early childhood in the home, and the first five or six 
years of the child's school life, are fundamentally significant in 
this connection. One cannot solve all of the problems of moral ed- 
ucation in the preadolescent period, but if the basis is properly laid 
at this time, the later problems will be greatly simplified. The 
child who has had a proper training in these formative years will 
evince a strong prejudice against lying, theft, laziness, disobedi- 
ence, and physical uncleanliness. He may not know why these 
things are wrong, but he will feel that they are wrong, and this is 
the fundamental and important factor ; for conduct is at basis a 
matter of feeling, and those in whom forbidden activities arouse 
disgust and abhorrence may be safely trusted to pass through 
the later emotional and moral crises in comparative safety. 

The Doctrine of Natural Punishments. — A great 
many misleading statements have been made by writers 
upon the subject of child discipline. Some have main- 
tained that " nature " will look after the necessary 
corrections, — will associate unpleasant consequences 
with wrong acts and pleasant consequences with right 
acts. Leave the child to the operation of the environ- 
ment about him, these theorists maintain, and he will ac- 
quire the kinds of acts that are valuable, and discard 
those that are useless. One form of this doctrine is 
known as the theory of " natural punishments " and was 
elaborated in a very ingenious way by Herbert Spencer, 
with whose name it is commonly associated. The doc- 
trine has many points to commend it, for it is true that 
the child, in adjusting himself to the world about him, 



154 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

will learn to inhibit many instinctive tendencies that 
do not " fit in " with present-day conditions. This 
method of learning, however, should not be depended 
upon alone. It is really a process of trial and error, and 
like all such processes is cumbrous and uneconomical. 
Conscious correction by parent and teacher pro- 
ceeds upon the basis of intelligence and foresight, and 
saves the child from undergoing too many painful 
experiences by seeing to it that the pain comes at the 
proper time. 

The natural method of punishing the child for careless use of 
matches would be a painful burn. But the careful parent will spare 
the little child this experience by associating the handling of 
matches at an irresponsible age with an unpleasant consequence 
sufficiently strong to inhibit the tendency, but far from being so 
painful and dangerous as an actual burn. 

Pleasure vs. Unpleasantness in Learning. — Still 
other educational writers (and not a few parents and 
teachers) believe that the child may learn the necessary 
inhibitions of Hfe without experiencing unpleasant 
consequences. These people would place the emphasis 
upon the positive rather than upon the negative side ; 
they would always reward the good rather than punish 
the evil. Again, there is much to be said for this point of 
view, and one would be foolish, indeed, to withhold the 
pleasure that ought to attach to right doing. But the 
doctrine has certain limitations and dangers that need 
to be held very clearly in mind : — 



HOW INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR MAY BE CHANGED 1 55 

(i) In the first place, the fear of the unpleasant and 
the disagreeable is probably a more effective stimulus 
than the liking and desire for the pleasant. This is true in 
animal psychology, as has been abundantly demon- 
strated. There is no doubt that it also holds with 
children and, indeed, with adults. This does not mean, 
however, that the two should not work together, or that 
the pleasant sanctions should not always be used when 
it is clear that they will be effective. 

(2) Another reason for not entirely discarding the 
unpleasant Hes in the fact that the kinds of behavior that 
are most significant and important in social Hfe are the 
farthest removed from instinct ; consequently it is diflS- 
cult always to find naturally or instinctively pleasant 
objects with which to associate these socially-important 
activities. The finest things in life are its generosities, 
its sacrifices, its renunciations, its achievements that 
have come after persistent effort and struggle, — and 
all of these things — these greatest " goods " of life — 
have but a restricted instinctive sanction. Sacrifice, for 
example, is instinctive or natural only in connection 
with the protection and care of offspring, and even then 
in a pronounced form only in the mother. Achievement 
has an instinctive basis in the powerful instincts of com- 
bativeness and rivalry, but persistent effort, — effort 
continued for a long time against tremendous odds, and 
in the face of contrary desires that are keen and impera- 
tive, — is an art that strikes against the most f unda- 



156 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

mental instincts. The greatest triumphs of humanity 
have come largely through the pain economy. The high- 
est ideal that man has yet conceived is represented by 
the agony of the cross. Struggle and suffering, the will to 
do the things which are not pleasant and agreeable, the 
ability to throw instinctive desire and immediate pleasure 
to the four winds, — these have been the forces which, 
working through the long centuries of human history, 
have lifted mankind, notch by notch, to its present 
level. And there is no reason to beheve that factors 
demanding less of the individual could ever have accom- 
plished, or will ever accomplish, a similar triumph. 

The Modification of Instinct. — (b) The Attachment 
of Another Response to an Object and to the Feeling that 
the Object instinctively Arouses. — This is also one of 
the simpler methods of modif )dng an instinctive tendency. 
The combative instinct furnishes a good example. It 
is naturally aroused only by some gross invasion of one's 
own physical " rights," and it is naturally expressed only 
by actual physical combat. If I ruthlessly take from 
the little child the object which he has appropriated and 
in which he finds pleasure, he will strike, kick, bite, look 
ferocious, and emit, not the cry of pain, but the cry of 
rage. This is the normal expression of the fighting in- 
stinct aroused by a normal stimulus. Primitive man 
similarly responds to a similar situation. Civilized 
life, however, compels another mode of response. If my 
neighbor steals my horse, I cannot well keep from re- 



HOW INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR MAY BE CHANGED 1 57 

senting the act keenly ; it would not be well for social life 
that feelings of resentment should be repressed when 
personal rights are invaded, for this would encourage an 
exploitation of the decent and law-abiding by the lawless. 
On the other hand, while I feel the resentment, / must not 
express that resentment in the primitive fashion. I must 
seek satisfaction, not with my fists, my teeth, and my 
nails, but through a due and proper process of law. 
Thus civilized society, while sanctioning the attachment 
of a primitive feeling to a primitive stimulus demands an 
entirely different response. 

Educationally, this method is important in connection 
with most of the individuahstic instincts, with some of 
the adaptive instincts, and especially with the sex in- 
stincts. It is right that rivalry should stimulate the 
feeling of emulation, for in this way progress is assured 
through many members of the group. One individual 
achieves an advance over his fellows, and his fellows 
struggle to catch up with him. This is " good," for it 
tends to advance the entire group. But rivalry can 
easily be expressed in ways which are " natural " enough 
but which are, nevertheless, quite inconsistent with 
social welfare. It is " natural " to take an unfair ad- 
vantage ; primitive man had no standards of honor in 
combat. Civihzed man has established such standards, 
— standards that have been wrought out of the race ex- 
perience through centuries of struggle and suffering. The 
child must be taught to live in accordance with their 



IS8 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

dictates. He must be made to feel that cheating, de- 
ception, " hitting below the belt," tale-bearing, and 
" knocking " are dishonorable and forbidden means of 
expressing his instinct of rivalry. He must learn to 
" play the game " fairly and squarely and to prefer 
honorable defeat to a dishonorable victory; and he 
must generalize these standards of conduct beyond the 
athletic situation, and apply them to every situation in 
which he competes with his fellows. 

It is for this reason that supervision of the games and plays of 
childhood is imperative ; for these activities, unsupervised, are 
likely to confirm and sanction underhanded means of winning. It 
is true that the cheat will be detected, and it is true that under 
certain conditions a much more eflfective punishment will be meted 
out to him by his fellows than the cleverest supervisor could devise. 
But these conditions do not always govern the situation. If the 
cheat happens to have the qualities of leadership, he will infect 
with his virus a goodly following among his companions ; and the 
evil, which is bad enough when individually expressed, runs riot 
through the entire social group. It has been found that unsuper- 
vised playgrounds in our large cities are veritable hotbeds of vice, 
and the same may be true of unsupervised recesses and noon inter- 
missions in the school. Where large numbers of children congre- 
gate, the welfare of society demands that a responsible adult be 
present, with full authority to check in the bud the first expression 
of a dangerous tendency. 

The Modification of Instinct, (c) The Detachment oj a 
Feeling from its Natural Object and Response, and its 
Attachment to Other Objects and Responses. — Much more 
difficult than either of the methods of modifying instincts 
discussed above is the method which attempts to Uft a 



HOW INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR MAY BE CHANGED 1 59 

strong feeling bodily out of the instinct to which it 
naturally belongs and to fasten it firmly to another object 
and to an entirely different response. This process is 
sometimes called the sublimation of the instinct, and its 
importance lies in the possibility of thus enlisting in the 
service of an important social ideal the powerful force 
that the native feeling represents and the energy that it 
may set free. 

This is what has happened, for example, when we 
" stand up for what is right," " fight for a principle," 
" make war on evil," and do other strenuous deeds which 
we can adequately describe only by employing a militant 
metaphor. The " cause " for which we " fight " becomes 
in effect a part of our own personality. We have appro- 
priated it ; it is ours. Hence the feelings and emotions 
that naturally go with the fighting instinct come to attach 
to the cause that we have made our own if this cause is 
invaded, questioned, or made light of by others. But 
while the feeling of resentment is aroused by the invasion 
of our cause, the primitive method of expressing this 
feeUng must not be permitted to operate. On the side 
of response as well as upon the side of the object or 
stimulus, there must be a modification. 

A very good illustration of an effective attempt to "sublimate " 
a primitive instinct is to be found in the success of the Salvation 
Army. Here we see a military organization with innumerable 
suggestions of actual physical combat enlisted in the service of 
the most peaceable of ideals. The Boy Scout movement (as it 
has been developed in America) makes a similar use of the feelings 



l6o HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

connected with several of the primitive instincts, attaching them 
to other objects and insuring responses that are only symbolic of 
the actual primitive responses. 

In general it may be concluded that these concrete 
and tangible factors that hark back in a symbolic way to 
an older instinct will be of inestimable service in enlisting 
in a worthy cause the feeling originally attaching to the 
instinct. Fortunately for us, nature did not draw fine 
distinctions, and when she associated feelings and emo- 
tions with instinctive activities, it was usually by very 
superficial bonds. These were sufficient for her purposes, 
and the very superficiality serves us a useful turn now 
that civilized life has compelled a reconstruction of so 
many of our native tendencies. 

The Relation of Attention to the Modification of In- 
stincts. — We have discussed three general methods of 
modifying instinctive tendencies. In all of these, the 
principles that were developed in the chapter on atten- 
tion are important. It will be remembered that " pas- 
sive " attention was at that time termed instinctive; 
attention is naturally given to those stimuH that " fit 
in " with instinctive or inborn tendencies. On the other 
hand, " active " attention means attending by effort 
to something that is not attractive, that does not " fit 
in " with an immediate instinctive need. The early 
stages of active attention always represent a modifica- 
tion of instinctive behavior ; it is only because we can 
give active or effortful attention that we can get above 



HOW INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR MAY BE CHANGED l6l 

instinct and climb to the plane of civilized life. In the 
chapter on Attention, we emphasized the importance of 
holding in mind the remote end as a means of overcom- 
ing the tendency to follow immediate desire. In the 
chapter on Feeling it was pointed out that the only way 
in which the idea of a remote end can be made effective 
over behavior is to endow it with a feeling that will con- 
qtier the feeling attached to the immediate tendency. In 
other words, we really place the gratification of the de- 
sire in the future and work steadfastly toward that in- 
stead of following the behest of immediate desire. 

Ideals in Relation to Instincts. — This attachment of 
a strong feeling to the idea of an end to be attained turns 
the idea into an ideal. The ideal may be closely related 
to an instinct, as when the boy who does not like to sell 
newspapers — who fears the taunts of his competitors, 
or the rude refusals of those whom he approaches as cus- 
tomers — conquers his shyness by the ideal of earning 
money, — of gratifying his instinct of acquisition. 
Another ideal that works close to the instinctive level 
is represented by the boy who dislikes arithmetic, but 
who works at his problems in spite of his distaste for 
them, because when he finishes them, he may gratify his 
constructive instinct at the manual-training bench. 

It is through this pushing forward of the instinct — 
this delayed gratification — that the first steps are taken 
away from primitive passive attention, and the first 
step is made toward active attention and the conquest 



1 62 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

of immediate desire. But education must not content 
itself with conquests that reach no further than this. 
It must start with these, but it must soon get beyond 
them. Other ideas, unconnected with instincts, must be 
endowed with feehng and thus given strength to over- 
come immediate tendencies. The boy must come in 
time to work steadfastly at a given problem or a given 
task, even if a primitive desire is not to be gratified either 
immediately or in the future. In other words, the 
most effective ideal that man has ever conceived is the 
one tkat is farthest removed from the primitive sanc- 
tions. It is the ideal of Duty, and the individual who 
does not form an effective ideal of duty in his early Hfe 
will find it hard to adjust himself satisfactorily to a 
world that gives its richest rewards only to those who are 
able to hold themselves in leash through the storm and 
stress of struggle and temptation. It is only when a 
man works from motives of duty that one can depend 
upon him without question. Though this ideal be 
strong, he may fail to carry his message and bring back 
an answer, but this failure will be due simply and solely 
to the limitations of his nature. But when a man has 
lived through his early life accustomed to shirk tasks that 
are distasteful or for which he can see no gain to himself, 
he is certain not to be dependable. He may carry the 
message and bring back the answer if he wants to or if 
the reward is clear and tangible ; but in the important 
crises, he will fail. It is one of the serious defects of 



HOW INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR MAY BE CHANGED 1 63 

modern educational theory that it has been blind to 
this principle. 

Definitions and Explanation of Terms Used 

Modification of instincts. — Changing the character 
of an instinctive activity by (i) attaching another feel- 
ing and its appropriate response to an object that nat- 
urally arouses an undesirable instinct; (2) attaching 
another response to an object and the feehng that it 
naturally arouses; or (3) detaching a feeUng from its 
natural object and response, and attaching it to other 
objects and responses. 

Sublimation of instinct. — Modification of the third 
type described above. 

Doctrine of natural punishments. — The theory that 
the unguided experience of the child will lead to the 
essential modification of instinctive tendencies. 

Ideal. — An idea surcharged with feeUng, and thus 
made an effective end or goal of conduct. 

Questions and Exercises 

1. What is meant by the statement : "Man, in order to be man, 
must get beyond instinct." 

2. Describe and illustrate the three ways of modifying instinct. 
Illustrate the following terms used in the discussion: "Object 
arousing instinctive activity"; "Feeling normally accompanying 
instinct"; "Response." 

3. Find in your own experience instances of the modification 
of instinctive tendencies through the discipline of unpleasant con- 
sequences. Did the "memory" of the consequences thereafter 



164 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

"fuse" immediately with the object or situation, or did the painful 
experience have to be recalled explicitly in order to inhibit the 
tendency ? 

4. What is meant by the doctrine of natural punishments? 
With whose name is the doctrine associated? State some cases 
in which it may be wise to leave the discipUne of the child to "nat- 
ural consequences." What are the limitations of this doctrine? 

5. From your own experience, what type of incentives would 
you judge to be the more powerful, — those involving fear of 
unpleasant consequences, or those involving hope of reward ? 

6. What standards of honor is it essential to develop in order 
to counteract the dangers involved in competition ? 

7. Name some forms of competition that may be permitted in 
school work. Under what circumstances is such competition likely 
to become dangerous ? 

8. What is meant by "sublimating" an instinct? In what 
ways may the energy generated by the strong "fighting" and 
"property" instincts be turned into desirable channels? 

9. In what way does active attention mean a conquest of in- 
stinct? Define the term "ideal." Name the ideals that have 
been particularly important in the development of the race. Show 
how these have represented a conquest over instinct or "nature." 
(These ideals are typically represented by the various virtues: 
honesty, charity, forgiveness, chastity, temperance, industry, duty, 
etc.). 



CHAPTER XI 

HABITUAL BEHAVIOR AND THE LAW OF 
HABIT-BUILDING 

In the last three chapters, two types of behavior that 
occur without the direction of consciousness have been 
discussed, — namely, reflex behavior and instinctive 
behavior. It was pointed out that inherited connec- 
tions in the nervous system condition these two types 
of behavior. The present chapter will be concerned 
with another class of automatic or mechanical responses, 
— habits. 

Habit Contrasted with Instinctive Behavior. — Habit 
resembles instinctive behavior in two important par- 
ticulars. In the first place, it is WDtjcontrqlledhy con- 
sciousness, and is to be looked upon as due to paths of 
preferred conduction in a chain of sensory and motor 
neurones. In the second place, like instinct it often 
has important conscious accompaniments, especially of 
an affective character. 

The important difference between habit and instinct 
lies in a difference of origin. This difference is best ex- 
pressed by saying that habits are acquired, while instincts 
are innate or inherited. The connections between neurones 
which give rise to habits are made during the lifetime of 

165 



1 66 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

the individual and through his own experience in react- 
ing to the world about him. The connections between 
neurones that give rise to instincts are either born with 
the individual or, if they appear after birth, they are 
due to tendencies which are inborn. Instincts, then, 
are fairly constant with all members of the same species, 
_yarying only in intensity ; habits, on the other hand, vary 
in kind with different individuals. The animal that de- 
pends chiefly upon instinct is suited only to a narrow range 
of Uf e ; it must Uve in the environment for which its in- 
stincts fit it. The animal that has the power to modify 
instincts and to form habits can adapt itself to varying 
or changing environments. 

The Affective Element in Habit: the " Propensity." — 
The intimate relation between instinctive behavior and 
feeHng or affection has already been emphasized. Since 
habits have so many resemblances to instincts, it is not 
surprising to find that the expression of a habit, like the 
expression of an instinct, is frequently accompanied by 
a pleasurable affective tone. A complex habit, indeed, 
becomes pleasurable as it becomes automatic. The dif- 
ficult feats of skill which are acquired through a period 
of intense and often disagreeable effort come to be 
sources of enjoyment; just "going through the move- 
ment " is often a pure delight. 

The fascination which games of skill possess for the initiated 
illustrates this principle. The beginner finds the complicated 
movements involved in playing golf, tennis, or billiards diflScult to 



HABITUAI. BEHAVIOR 1 67 

master ; he becomes discouraged and is often tempted to give up 
the task and seek his recreation in something else. But gradually, 
as the art is acquired, the unpleasant factors are eliminated ; and 
when the activities have become fairly automatic and mechanical, 
a real pleasure attaches to them. The same transition from a 
stage of unpleasantness to pleasantness and even fascination is to 
be observed in the growth of almost every habit. The cold morn- 
ing bath is ordinarily not only unpleasant but highly disagreeable 
to the beginner; but continued practice makes it a thoroughly 
gratifying exercise. The novice at the piano looks upon the weary 
hours of practice as the last word in drudgery ; but once the 
technique is mastered, — once the adjustments have become auto- 
matic, — playing becomes a source of pleasure. 

This affective " propensity" of habits is most clearly 
recognized, however, when the customary expression or 
activity is interfered with. Our routine is broken up ; 
the stimulus that ordinarily " sets off " a series of move- 
ments is prevented from doing so ; and we feel irritated, 
ill at ease, out of harmony with our surroundings. Indeed, 
if the break is sudden and unexpected, — if an unlooked- 
for situation comes between the stimulus and the habit- 
ual response, — a period of emotional excitement may 
ensue, precisely as it does when a strong instinctive 
tendency is suddenly " blocked." 

The Importance of Habit-formation. — In one sense, 
the whole process of education culminates in the for- 
mation of useful habits, — in the acquisition by the in- 
dividual of certain forms of behavior which will adapt 
or adjust him to the life which he is to lead. As will 
be pointed out later^ however, education in the school 



1 68 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

and home cannot form all of the useful habits that the 
individual will need, for the conditions of Hfe are con- 
tinually changing, and neither the teacher nor the parent 
can predict with certainty just what habits will be needed 
in the mature Hfe of the individual. Hence, while all 
education may culminate in habit, it does not follow 
that school education does nothing but form habits. 
A very important part of its duty is to prepare the child 
to form habits for himself when he needs them, — to 
furnish him with conscious guides to behavior which 
will permit him to meet new situations, — as well as to 
fix permanent and rigid habits which will control his 
conduct in the unchanging situations. It is with the 
latter problem, however, that the present chapter is 
especially concerned. 

The Law of Habit-formation. — The process of habit- 
forming in education may be stated under three heads : 
(i)^focalization of consciousness upon the combination 
of movements to be made automatic ; (2) attentive repe- 
tition of this behavior ; (3) permitting no exceptions to 
occur until the habit has been established. 

(i) Focalization. — This really means gaining a clear 
idea of the way in which the different muscles must work 
together in order to form the habit. Very frequently 
the teacher gives a demonstration of the appropriate 
movements, making certain that the pupils repeat the 
movements in the same way, and thus get the "feel " 
of the new adjustment. 



HABITUAL BEHAVIOR 1 69 

The "Montessori" method of primary education employs some 
ingenious devices for insuring effective focalization. When the 
child is learning to write, for example, he is given blocks upon which 
are pasted letters cut from a fine-grained sandpaper. With the 
tip of the finger the child is taught to trace the letters as they are 
written. He follows the sandpapered lines with the finger, the 
shght "tickle" of the paper proving an effective incentive im- 
pelling him to repeat the movement until the proper coordination 
of the muscles has been mastered. 

Habits may also be initiated by the process of " trial 
and error " described in Chapter II. The individual 
" blunders " about in trying to solve a situation, and 
finally " hits upon " the fortunate combination of move- 
ments that will meet his purpose. This successful 
method stands out from the others simply because it is 
successful. He repeats it readily and the habit may be 
quickly established. In general, however, this method 
is of only shght importance in education. As will be 
shown later, it is essential to economy of habit-forma- 
tion to begin with the most effective and economical 
adjustment and not to run the risk of permitting inade- 
quate habits to be formed. It has been said that fully 
two thirds of the drill work of the teacher in the elemen- 
tary school is given over to the breaking of inadequate 
habits that the child has been permitted to form. One 
way to reduce this waste in education is to see to it that 
the right habits are formed first. 

(2) Attentive Repetition. — No habit can be formed 
without repetition. The combination of movements 



lyo HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

constituting the habit must be repeated over and 
over again until the neurones are permanently connected. 
Furthermore, mere repetition, if not ineffective, is at 
least uneconomical. Attention must he given to the repe- 
titions. Among the lower animals, it is often impossible 
to secure such attention, and for this reason the habits 
that can be formed are very simple in their nature 
and a longer time must be spent in their acquisition. 
Drill is necessary in learning, but it should never be 
lifeless, mechanical drill. The learner must be conscious 
of his failures, of his inadequacies, but it is even more 
important that his successful efforts should be recog- 
nized and commended. 

The necessity for securing attention to the repetitions involved 
in habit-formation is recognized by skillful teachers in the inven- 
tion of devices which will insure the pupils' interest in the work, and 
relieve the monotony which is otherwise inevitable A device is a 
means of varjdng the work in some of its non-essential or superficial 
details, while, at the same time, the fundamental adjustments or 
movements -are preserved. Thus, in making automatic the asso- 
ciations represented by the "tables" in arithmetic, different types 
of problems are introduced ; the difference, however, is in the de- 
tails ; the fundamental relations of the numbers are stiU preserved. 

Spelling, as a habit-building process, consists in making auto- 
matic the sequence of letters in words. In English spelling, these 
sequences must in many cases be mastered literally by "main 
strength," for there are very few rules that will aid one. The 
spelUng of each word, then, becomes as it were a separate habit, 
and the problem in teaching spelling is first to focalize the form 
effectively, and then to insure attentive repetition until the proper 
order of the letters has become " second nature." Devices for sus- 



HABITUAL BEHAVIOR 171 

taining attention are particularly important here, and one of the 
most effective of these devices is the spelling match. Here the 
strong instinct of rivalry is brought into the service of habit-forma- 
tion, impelling the individual to repeat attentively that he may 
later make a good record either for his own advancement over 
others or for the honor of his "side." 

In general, "marks" and "grades" may be looked upon as 
devices for impelling the pupil to give the necessary effort to his 
work when the intrinsic and immediate interest in it has died 
away. 

(3) Permitting no Exceptions. — In establishing a new 
habit, especially when it opposes, as it often does, an 
old habit that must be uprooted, or when it opposes a 
strong instinct, it is essential that no exception to the 
desired behavior be permitted, and especially that 
there be no relapse to the older habit or to the in- 
stinctive response. While this principle is important 
in all phases of habit-formation, it has been emphasized 
most frequently in connection with the so-called 
"moral" habits. The reformed drunkard must not allow 
himself to take even " one glass " ; for, if a retttrn to the 
older habit is initiated, it will be harder than ever to 
break loose from its shackles. 

One of the most important applications of this prin-. 
ciple in education is to undertake only a few habit-build- ' 
ing processes of the same sort at the same time. In 
spelling, for example, it is well to take up only two or 
three new words at a time, to focalize these adequately, 
and to keep recurring to them until they are thoroughly 
mastered. In correcting inadequate or ungrammatical 



172 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

habits of speech it is also essential to proceed systemati- 
cally, one error at a time, keeping the correct form con- 
stantly before the pupils, and seeing to it that it is used 
in place of the incorrect form. 

The Importance of Initiative or " Motivation " in 
Habit-formation. — The law of habit-formation, which 
is involved in the three principles discussed above, should 
be appUed with a full knowledge of certain general 
characteristics of the habit-building process and of the 
conditions under which habits are economically estab- 
lished. The first of these more general conditions is 
illustrated in all three of the principles just discussed. 
The attitude which one takes toward the habit to he formed 
is a fundamental factor in the efficiency of the habit-form- 
ing process. If one is imbued with a strong desire to 
master the new habit, it is clear that one will focalize 
it more carefully, repeat it more attentively, and avoid 
exceptions more zealously than if there is no particular 
interest in its formation, — hence the importance of 
insuring in the pupil a strong motive for thoroughly 
mastering the new adjustment. 

This may be accomplished in several ways, each of 
which, however, is more easily described than appUed. 
It is sometimes possible to show the pupil the need for 
the new adjustment, and thus provide him with what is 
called a " natural " motive for making it automatic. 
If the pupil realizes, for example, that perfecting his 
speech forms will enable him to communicate more ef- 



HABITUAL BEHAVIOR 1 73 

fectively, he will have a natural motive for the study and 
repetition essential to this end. If he can see that an 
absolutely automatic mastery of the addition and mul- 
tiplication tables will save time and money in his busi- 
ness relationships, he will have a natural motive for 
undergoing patiently and persistently the necessary 
drill. 

Motives May be Closely Related to the Child's Life 
and Interests. — It is obvious, however, that these nat- 
ural motives which relate directly to the Ufe-activity 
for which the special training in question prepares, can 
be used only occasionally in the lower schools, for the 
reason that the pupil cannot always appreciate and un- 
derstand the ultimate value of the material that he is asked 
to learn. It becomes necessary, then, to introduce other 
types of motive, similar to the devices referred to above. 
The practice approved at the present time by most educa- 
tors is to emphasize, as far as possible, motives that 
relate clearly and closely to the child's own immediate 
interests and childish needs. Thus the teacher who wishes 
to emphasize the importance of serious work in lan- 
guage may interest his pupils in a correspondence club 
formed in cooperation with another school. Or a school 
exhibition or entertainment may be planned, and the 
pupils asked to write the invitations to their parents and 
other members of the community. They may even 
work out, write, and learn the speaking parts of a drama. 
The importance of the arithmetic drills may be im- 



174 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

pressed by showing how essential is accurate and clear-cut 
number work to good results in manual training. 

In any case, it is essential to stimulate the " will to 
do," and the teacher who can successfully attain this 
end is pretty certain to accomplish good results in the 
habit studies. 

The Importance of the Right Start. — The economy of 
initiating the desired habit in its simplest and most eco- 
nomical form has already been referred to. Many 
teachers in the departmental work of the high school 
or the college prefer that, in the special subjects which 
they teach, the students who come to them should have 
had no previous training. This attitude is an implicit 
recognition of the dangers that the wrong start involves. 
A great deal of the criticism that the schools meet from 
business men who employ public-school graduates is 
due to the fact that — along with the valuable habits 
that the school has implanted — certain very undesir- 
able modes of behavior have been permitted to become 
habitual. Sometimes these are represented by clumsy 
and uneconomical methods of writing and computation ; 
more frequently it is the moral habits that are defective. 
The boy has not been " disciplined " into habits of obe- 
dience, promptness, industry, and respect for those in 
authority ; and his bad habits must be uprooted before 
he can do his work properly. 

The Phenomenon of Interference in Habit-formation. 
— When habits that are in the process of formation'con- 



HABITUAL BEHAVIOR 1 75 

flict in certain of their elements, it is necessary that 
these be continued until they are firmly estabHshed; 
otherwise they will mutually destroy one another. This 
fact of " interference " has long been recognized, and 
recently an attempt has been made by actual experi- 
ment to find out more precisely just how this interfer- 
ence operates. It has been found that, at the outset 
of the process of forming two conflicting habits, the 
learning of either is not so rapid as if it were being mas- 
tered alone. After the lapse of some time, however, 
both are as firmly estabhshed as if they had not been 
in confhct at the outset, and in the aggregate no time 
is lost because of the original interference. 

The learning of two foreign languages during the same period of 
time is a case in point At the outset there is a danger of confusing 
the vocabularies and idioms, but if the practice in both is con- 
tinued, an effective mastery will be attained. The person who has 
learned both French and German until he can speak either fluently 
does not confuse the two tongues. For each he has a definite set 
of habitual associations, represented in the nervous system by 
separate sets of connected neurones. The practical significance 
of these principles may be formulated as follows : Never begin the 
mastery of two conflicting types of behavior unless both can be 
continued long enough to become permanently established habits. 

The "Practice Curve" and its " Plateaus. " — At 

the outset of forming a new habit, the rate of learning 
is rapid. It then progresses more slowly, and there are 
periods of no improvement, and sometimes periods of 
relapse when the learning goes back to an earUer and 



176 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

less perfect stage. If the learner persist in his effort, 
these periods of no progress may give place to periods 
of rapid growth. Periods of growth thus commonly 
alternate with stationary periods, giving rise to what is 
technically known as the " practice curve." What is 
pictured in this curve is the growth of the habit from its 
earliest beginning to a point where it has reached a fairly 
perfect form. The initial growth is very rapid; the 
later growth is relatively slow ; and the curve gradually 
" flattens out," representing the plane of maximal effi- 
ciency in the habit. The places in the curve represent- 
ing the intermediate periods of no growth, or of actual 
loss in progress previously made, are known as " pla- 
teaus." 

The Significance of Plateaus in Habit-formation. — 
The periods when growth is slow and halting or, indeed, 
non-existent, are critical for the learner, since he is 
Hkely at such times to become confused and discouraged, 
and to give up entirely the discipHne that is essential 
to further growth. 

In practically all subjects involving habit-formation, 
the initial stages are interesting first on account of their 
novelty, and secondly on account of the relative ease with 
which some skill — trifling in amount and yet gratify- 
ing to the learner — may be attained. There comes 
a period, however, when difficulties increase, and prog- 
ress is greatly retarded. The pupil who has found it 
rather easy to work out manual training projects in- 



HABITUAL BEHAVIOR 1 77 

volving only the simplest operations comes to a project 
which requires the making of nicely fitting joints. He 
must now cHmb to a higher plane of skill, and the diffi- 
culty of making this advance stands out sharp and clear 
against the relative ease of his early conquests. The stu- 
dent of telegraphy may have little trouble in "sending " 
ten or fifteen words a minute, but to increase his speed 
to the point where he can send twenty or thirty seems to 
take much more than double the time and effort required 
for the simpler achievement. The young teacher may 
quickly reach the point where her supervisor will grade 
her instruction and disciphne as " B," but years of strenu- 
ous and persistent work may be necessary before the 
grade month after month is recorded as " A plus." 

The Treatment of Habit on the "Plateau " Stage.— 
It is a matter of controversy among psychologists whether 
these plateaus of growth are really essential in the prac- 
tice curve, or wJiether they may not be avoided if proper 
precautions are taken. In other words, if the teacher 
did his work perfectly, would not these halting places 
in the progress qf pupils disappear, and would not the 
curve of growth be represented by a steady upward 
sweep, with no " flattened " places, and no periods of 
actual relapse? 

This question cannot be answered at the present time, 
but it should be insisted that the teacher may take cer- 
tain steps to render these plateaus less disastrous than 
they would be otherwise. In the first place, the pupil 



178 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

may be encouraged to persevere, even if he has reached 
a plateau of growth. Or, if the conditions warrant such 
a course, he may be encouraged to drop his task for 
a while and to come back to it later, for frequently lack 
of progress is due to fatigue, and a rest will restore the 
capacity for growth to its original efficiency. Again 
the teacher may see to it that the learning proceeds by 
carefully graded steps ; that the learner does not attempt 
a new set of habits or a new type of skill until he is ready 
for it. 

It is important in this connection that the types of skill with 
which the school deals shovild be analyzed into their component 
habit-elements, in order that these elements may be mastered 
systematically. One point of excellence in the "Montessori" 
methods lies in the fact that the complex habits, such as those 
involved in writing, have been carefully analyzed, the simpler 
habit-elements dissected out, as it were, and the means devised 
for insuring that the pupil masters each element in order, — the 
simpler before the more complex. 

Finally, the teacher may see to it that one of the chief 
factors in success has a chance to operate, — namely, 
self-confidence in one's ability to do the work, to solve 
the problem, to master the skill. There is some danger 
here that the child may come to depend too much upon 
praise and adulation, and to become discouraged if 
praise is not forthcoming when he thinks that it should 
be. But between excessive praise which would lead to 
this result and the absence of all commendation, which 
deadens every one save the genius, there is a happy 



HABITUAL BEHAVIOR 1 79 

medium which the intelligent teacher will quickly rec- 
ognize. 

The Importance of Intense Effort. — In forming a 
new habit, the learner should, at times, put forth the 
greatest effort of which he is capable. It often happens 
that, in these periods of unusual effort, a higher degree 
of efficiency is reached than could possibly be attained 
otherwise ; and when this level is once reached, it gives 
the learner confidence to persevere until he can maintain 
it permanently. 

The distinction between the expert and the mediocre workman 
is often found in the ability of the former to reach this level of 
maximal efficiency and to maintain himself upon this level. The 
difference between the poorly paid office stenographer and the 
successfvd court reporter is a difference between these two levels 
of perfection. It is the circumstance of a little greater accuracy and 
a little greater rapidity that makes one person an expert and 
another a drudge. 

The practice of the schools to devote certain brief periods each 
day to intensely concentrated, "rapid-fire" drills in arithmetic 
and other subjects is to be commended from the point of view 
provided by this principle. It is the intense effort that educates. 

Rapidity vs. Accuracy in Habit-formation. — It is 

a fact of common observation that " Haste makes 
waste." There is a point in every stage of learning 
beyond which the rapidity with which the work is done 
will be the source of many errors. While it is desirable 
to " speed up " the learning occasionally, it would be 
unfortunate to continue this excessive speed at the ex- 



l8o HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

pense of accuracy in performance. Continued errors 
and unskillful methods of work soon become permanently 
fixed, and then a high grade of attainment is impossible. 
The learner should be encouraged to keep to as high a 
level of rapidity as is consistent with accurate results, 
but should not be urged to work so rapidly that the 
results will be inferior. 

Slow learning does not necessarily mean that the work is being 
done in a careful manner. Many pupils learn slowly largely be- 
cause they are indolent and inattentive. These should be stimu- 
lated to do more rapid work. Their slowness in no way pro- 
motes efficiency. In the ideal school, where each teacher will have 
only as many pupils as he can teach effectively, it will be possible 
to study each pupil as an individual to determine the conditions 
under which he can work best. 

The Specific Character of Habits. — Habits are spe- 
cific. They consist in doing certain definite activities 
in certain definite ways. The term " general habit " 
has been a source of confusion in educational theory ; and 
while there is some justification for employing the word 
in connection with habitual attitudes of mind and body, 
it will promote clear thinking to confine the word " habit" 
to the specific responses to specific situations or stimuli. 

The specific character of habits might be inferred from the physi- 
cal basis which has been assumed for these modes of behavior, — 
that is, the formation of preferred paths of conduction among defi- 
nite groups of neurones. This implies that the excitation must 
move in one direction, and only one. When there is a possibility 
of the excitation taking various courses, then the habit has not been 
completely established; and hesitation and conscious direction 



HABITUAL BEHAVIOR l8l 

must intervene. A f^Uy established habit is one in which the 
path between stimulation and response is fixed, and in which the 
resulting behavior is definite and certain. 

The " Transfer " of Habits. — Upon the question of 
the possibihty of transferring a specific habit from the 
situation in which it has been formed to another situa- 
tion, there has been a great deal of controversy which 
has led in recent years to careful experiments. Much 
work still needs to be done in this field before we may con- 
fidently lay down general laws, but, pending thoroughly 
valid conclusions, certain hypotheses for the guidance of 
practice may be drawn from the facts now at our com- 
mand. 

(i) Transfer through ^^ Identical Elements. ^^ — In the 
first place, it has been shown by experiment that habits 
built up as responses to certain situations may " spread " 
as habits to other situations if the latter have numerous 
or significant points of identity with the former. By 
the spread of habits " as habits," we mean that the re- 
sponse in the new situation is thoroughly automatic 
and mechanical; the individual does not have con- 
sciously to lift the old habit out of its old setting and 
apply it to the new situation. 

Let us suppose that the child has formed in connection with his 
school fife the specific habits of prompt and regular attendance. 
He goes to school "on time" and he goes each day. He does not 
"think" about these things, but when the time comes for going 
to school, he picks up his books and starts off. It is needless to say 
that these habits of promptness and regularity would be most 



162 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

valuable to him in his later life, but will they "spread" to out-of 
school situations ? It is probable that in most cases they will, for 
the school situation is a "work" situation, a "duty" situation, 
and the employment which the pupil enters later is also likely 
to appeal to him as possessing these characteristics. The two 
situations present points of identity, and the habits common to one 
are Ukely to become common to the other. If the school should 
lack these characteristics, the habits would tend to remain specific 
to the school situation. 

Too much reliance must not be placed, however, on 
the chance that situations will possess points of identity. 
The experiments that have been made show that a very 
slight change in the situation may serve to prevent a use- 
ful habit from " spreading." Nevertheless, it is well 
to make the school situation resemble the situations that 
are to be met in later life in all possible and legitimate 
ways. In general, the more closely school resembles 
actual Hfe conditions, the more hkely it will be that the 
valuable habits to the building of which the school de- 
votes so much of its energy will be really important fac- 
tors in the pupil's later hfe. 

(2) Transfer through ^'Ideals of Procedure ^^ and "Con- 
cepts of Method.^' It is much more essential in insuring 
the " spread " of useful habits to develop in the pupil 
an appreciation of the importance and value of the habits 
and a definite idea of looking about him to see when and 
how these habits may be employed in new situations- 
It was pointed out that habits tend to " spread " as 
habits (that is, on the mechanical or automatic level) 



HABITUAL BEHAVIOR 183 

only when situations possess points of identity. But 
it is always possible to transfer a habit from one field 
to another through a conscious process. Here the activ- 
ity is no longer mechanical and automatic ; it has been 
raised into the clear light of consciousness, and the great 
importance of consciousness, as has already been pointed 
out, lies in the fact that it enables us to meet new situations. 
From one point of view, the function of consciousness 
is to select from our stock of specific habits, a new combina- 
tion of responses that will enable us to meet the new situa- 
tion effectively. 

Thus, while habits of promptness and regularity of work may- 
be transferred on the automatic level from the school situations 
to the situations of later life, it would be folly for the teacher to 
depend upon this chance when he can make the "spread" much 
more certain by developing ideals which will impel the pupil to be 
prompt and regular in every situation which he may meet. In 
the former case, the transfer is limited to the automatic level; 
in the latter case, it operates consciously and explicitly; the 
individual has made promptness and regularity ideals, — he has 
endowed them with the affective force which insures their control 
over conduct. Beyond this, he has an idea of what promptness 
and regidarity mean and how to achieve these virtues. In 
other words, he has a definite concept of the desirable method of 
procedure. 

In order, then, that a habit may have " general " 
value, it must be one that can in whole or in part be 
evoked by many situations ; or it must be one from 
which certain ideals of procedure may be derived and 
appUed to many different forms of behavior. 



184 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

This limitation of the activity of specific habits has far-reaching 
consequences in education. Because the pupil habitually attends 
to his work in nature study, it is not to be inferred that he will 
necessarily give an equal measure of attention to the lesson in 
history. He is more likely to give attention to all of the school 
subjects, if he is led to recognize the value of forming these specific 
habits of attending. He may be orderly and neat in his written 
work in English and still hand in disorderly papers in arithmetic 
and geography. Indeed, he is likely to do this unless neatness is 
insisted upon in all subjects or unless neatness has been made a 
general ideal. The child may as a matter of habit be obedient 
when his father is present, and quite the reverse when left with his 
mother. He may keep strict order under one teacher and be the 
center of disturbance in the next class. Obedience to constituted 
authority is the general ideal that must be developed here ; other- 
wise the habits of obedience formed in one situation will be of 
negligible value in other situations. 

The Limitations of Habit. — While it is desirable that 
the individual should be equipped with as many useful 
habits as possible, no human Ufe should be given entirely 
over to the sway of habit. The person who has all or 
most of his activities reduced to the plane of unvarying 
routine is simply and purely a machine. To grow means 
to have fresh interests, to meet new problems, to put 
old responses together in new ways, — in short, to build 
new habits. One of the ideals that the mature indi- 
vidual should cherish is the ideal of growth, and this 
should impel him assiduously to seek for means through 
which action may be improved. With advancing 
years, the temptation becomes stronger and stronger 
to rest content with the progress already made. What 



HABITUAL BEHAVIOR 185 

has been aptly termed the "plasticity of youth" is 
lost. New modes of behavior are acquired slowly and 
with increasingly distasteful effort. To " keep young " 
means to fight against this natural tendency to crystal- 
lize one's hfe in the inflexible forms of routine behavior. 

While ''drill" is an indispensable method of edu- 
cation, the teacher who devotes all of his time to this 
process will fail really to educate his pupils. Beyond 
and above the specific habits that are to be built up 
(and which must never be neglected) are the facts and 
principles to be impressed, the ideals, standards, tastes, 
and " points of view " to be engendered. It is these 
that will prepare the child for the new and varying 
situations of hfe, while habit-building looks after the 
unchanging or constant situations. It is particularly 
through knowledge upon the one hand and ideals upon/ 
the other that the pupil is prepared to form for himself 
new habits that will fit new circumstances in his Hfe. 

The Importance of Teaching Pupils how to Form 
Habits. — The preceding discussion leads to a final topic 
in connection with habit-building. Not only is it essen- 
tial that pupils be led to form useful habits; it is of 
prime importance that they be given a mastery of the 
method of habit-formation. Out of the specific disci- 
plines of spelHng and penmanship, learning the tables 
and memorizing selections from Hterature, coming to 
school regularly and promptly, obeying those in author- 
ity and respecting the rights and feelings of others, — 



1 86 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

out of these the great lesson of self-discipline should 
gradually emerge. The child who leaves the elementary 
school should know how to go about it to form a habit 
for himself; he should understand the importance of 
adequate focalization, attentive repetition, and the 
avoidance of exceptions, — although he need not know 
these names; and above all, he should appreciate the 
significance of attacking a habit-building task aggres- 
sively and persisting in it unremittingly. The most 
successful teachers are those who make these great lessons 
of life shine out clear and strong through the seemingly 
trivial and paltry details of the day's work. 

Definitions and Explanation op Terms Used 

Propensity. — The affective "tone" which often ac- 
companies the expression of a well-developed habit. 

Focalization. — The process of gaining a clear idea of 
the way in which different elements go together to form 
a desired-habit. 

Practice curve. — A diagrammatic representation of 
the growth of a new combination of responses into a 
perfected habit. The curve rises rapidly at first, and 
then tends to " flatten out " until, when the habit 
has reached a maximum of efficiency, the line is 
horizontal. 

Plateau. — Flat places or depressions in the practice 
curve before the final flattening has been attained. Pla- 
teaus indicate that growth has stopped for the time 



HABITUAL BEHAVIOR 187 

being, or (if the curve is depressed) that the learner has 
gone back to a less efficient stage. 

Concept of method, Ideals of procedure. — These are 
agencies involved in the " transfer " of specific habits from 
the fields in which they have been formed to other fields. 

Questions and Exercises 

1. Define habit and contrast it with reflex and instinctive be- 
havior. In what way does the formation of habits promote 
economy in behavior ? 

2. Name some of the important specific habits that education 
must impart. (Remember that a specific habit is a specific or 
particular response to a specific or particular stimulus or situa- 
tion) . 

3. In what different ways may adequate " f ocalization " be 
encouraged ? 

4. What is meant by attentive repetition, and what is its signifi- 
cance to the process of habit-formation? What steps may the 
teacher take to insure that the pupil is attentive to the necessary 
repetitions ? 

5. Why is it important to start the formation of any desirable 
specific habit with a demonstration of the simplest and most 
effective movements ? Note in the work of a teacher the effort that 
is spent in breaking up undesirable habits. Compare with the time 
and effort spent in the positive process of building desirable habits 
from the start. 

6. Why are "exceptions" unfortunate in habit-formation? 

7. What is meant by "interference" in habit-formation. Illus- 
trate. How may its evil effects be avoided ? 

8. Define and illustrate the term "plateau" as this is used in 
describing the progress of growth in a habit. What should be the 
attitude of the teacher with regard to these plateaus ? 

9. What is the relation between accuracy and rapidity of 
movement in forming a habit ? 



1 88 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

10. The best way to study the laws of habit-formation is to 
form a habit and watch the process. Select a simple adjustment, 
such as taking a new route on your way to school ; doing a certain 
tj^je of work at a definite time, — for example, studying each 
evening from seven to eight, or going through with calisthenic 
exercises each morning and evening ; learning a new game involv- 
ing motor adjustments, — tennis, golf, handball, — or a new move- 
ment or "play" in a game. Note (i) the importance of strong 
initiative or motive; (2) the temptation to exceptions and their 
influence if permitted ; (3) how long it takes the adjustments to 
become "automatic" — to take care of themselves with a minimum 
of attention ; (4) the growth of the "propensity," — when do you 
begin to feel a delight in the activity, and when does deprivation 
of the opportunity to exercise the habit cause an unpleasant feeling ; 
(5) the phenomena of interference ; (6) the phenomena of plateaus. 

11. After the habit has been well established, try the process 
of habit-breaking. Select some undesirable habit that has 
been formed: biting the nails; mispronouncing certain words 
(correct one at a time and watch the process) ; using certain un- 
desirable or ungrammatical forms of speech. Note in this case 
the "cues" that have heretofore, perhaps without coming into 
clear consciousness, "set off" the undesirable activity. Can you 
break the habit by avoiding the cues ? What is the influence of 
exceptions upon the process of habit-breaking? How many 
"inhibitions" or "repressions" are necessary before the desire to 
follow the habitual mode of behavior is no longer felt ? 

12. Under what conditions may specific habits, built up as 
responses to specific situations, be transferred to other situations ? 

13. Make a list of the school subjects that have as their primary 
purpose the building of habits. Make a list of those that should 
leave with the pupil knowledge (ideas and principles) or ideals 
rather than specific habits. What specific habits are necessary to 
the successful study of history, geography, physiology ? (In this 
connection, consider the phases of these subjects that shovfld be 
memorized — lists of dates, boundaries, etc.) 



PART III 

CONSCIOUSLY CONTROLLED MODES OF 
BEHAVIOR 

CHAPTER XII 
SENSATION AND BEHAVIOR 

In the preceding chapters, consciousness has been re- 
ferred to as an important factor in controlling behavior. 
Instinctive behavior and habitual behavior, as we have 
seen, may be largely independent of conscious direction ; 
but we have also seen that, if instincts are to be changed 
or redirected, or if specific habits are to be appHed to 
situations different from those in which they have been 
formed, consciousness must control the processes of re- 
direction or transference. We may reverse this state- 
ment and say that whenever consciousness is present, 
there is some aspect of the total behavior that is not 
completely mechanical. 

The Elements of Consciousness. — Reference has 
already been made to the elements of consciousness. 
If any state of consciousness be analyzed by what is 
called the process of introspection (" looking in " or 

189 



IQO HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

observing one's own consciousness), at least two types of 
elementary processes are recognized, — affection and 
sensation.'^ In Chapters V and VI, affection was discussed 
with reference to the simpler and more complex forms in 
which it appears, — namely, feeling and emotion. The 
importance of affection lies in the fact that it gives value 
to our conscious experiences : the two affective qualities, 
" pleasantness " and " unpleasantness " have been, 
throughout the development of mind, the signs or symp- 
toms of what is beneficial or detrimental to the organism. 

Sensation, on the other hand, informs the organism of 
the world in which it lives, and of the condition of its 
own body. It is through sensation that we become aware 
of situations demanding a response. 

The Organs of Sensation. — The external world mani- 
fests itself to us through physical stimuli that set up 
excitations in the " sense organs." Thesfe organs are 
primarily " differentiated " or " specialized " ends of sen- 
sory neurones. Each sense organ " picks up " a special 
type of physical stimulation and ordinarily responds to 
no other type of stimulation. Thus the eye " picks up " 
the vibrations of the ether that are known as light waves ; 
the ear responds to the vibrations that are known as 
sound waves ; the taste buds on the tongue respond in a 
characteristic way to different solutions that find their 
way into the mouth ; the organs of smell respond char- 

1 The number of elements is still a matter of dispute among psycholo- 
gists. Some recognize the " image " as an element. 



SENSATION AND BEHAVIOR 191 

acteristically to different gases that are inhaled through 
the nose ; the pressure and temperature sense organs 
report the weight and temperature of objects in contact 
with the skin ; and so on. 

Definition of Sensation. — The stimulus thus " picked 
up " by the sense organ is transformed into an excitation 
of the nerve substance, and this excitation travels up the 
sensory nerve. It may be deflected to a motor neurone 
at some point below the cortex of the cerebrum ; if this 
is the case, the sensory impression may never become a 
matter of consciousness, and the behavior is thoroughly 
mechanical, — either reflex or habitual, accordingly as 
the pathway between the sensory and the motor neurone 
is inborn or acquired. If, however, the sensory impres- 
sion does reach the cortex of the large brain, it will prob- 
ably give rise to a definite sensory experience. This 
consciousness which is correlated with the stimulation of 
a sense organ is termed a sensation. 

" Pure " Sensation an Abstraction. — Pure sensa- 
tions, however, do not exist in any developed form of 
consciousness. What we ordinarily call sensation is some- 
thing more. The mere sensation has been given a mean- 
ing and then it is a perception. This book that I see is 
not a mere visual object that has color and form. It 
means something to me ; I recognize it as a book ; in 
other words, I perceive it. That patch of red that falls 
upon my eye is more than a simple sensation of redness, 
for I recognize it as red, and this recognition makes of it 



192 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

a perception. So, too, the bell that I hear is not pure 
sound, but sound interpreted to mean bell. Thus it is 
with all of my sensory experiences; I invariably inter- 
pret them in the light of my past experience, and this 
interpretation is perception. 

Sensation Incomplete without Response. — It is im- 
portant to understand how this interpretation of sen- 
sation takes place. Conscious experience is not, as 
some have supposed, made up by the addition of various 
sensory experiences, one after the other. Mere sensa- 
tion could never give meaning to any object of experi- 
ence. The sensory sti?nulus must express itself in some 
form of action before a perception can be set up. Now, 
this is just what we should expect to be the case, since 
we have held throughout to the point of view that con- 
sciousness is of service to the individual only in so far 
as it influences conduct. All sensory experiences tend 
to find expression in movement. This is what has already 
been termed in an earHer chapter the " sensori-motor " 
character of experience. 

But while this interpretation of experience is necessary, 
there must always be at the basis of our mental life either 
sensation or feeling ; otherwise there would be no con- 
scious conditions to set up behavior. It is necessary 
therefore to inquire somewhat more fully into the nature 
of the sensory experiences that lie at the basis of con- 
sciousness. Sensation comes to us through several dif- 
ferent avenues. The chief of these are the eye, the ear. 



SENSATION AND BEHAVIOR 1 93 

the nose, the mouth, the skin, and the muscles. Sen- 
sations also arise from the internal organs. 

The Attributes of Sensation. — All sensations have 
certain attributes; that is, features that invariably char- 
acterize them and without which the sensations cannot 
exist. These, as commonly given, are intensity, dura- 
tion, quality, and clearness. 

No sensation can arise without possessing some de- 
gree of intensity. A light, for example, may be very 
dim or extremely bright, a sound just barely audible, or 
distressingly loud, a taste may be faintly or excessively 
bitter, but in any case there must be some degree of 
brightness, or loudness, or bitterness. 

Likewise a sensation must exist for a certain interval 
of time to be actually present as an element of conscious- 
ness. This may be but a small part of a second, or it 
may be much longer ; in any case, however, the sensation 
must occupy a measurable amount of time. 

Again, every sensation must have some quality that 
distinguishes it from other sensations. For example, 
the sensation quality makes us aware whether the pres- 
ent object of consciousness is a light or a sound. There 
are, of course, as many different sensory qualities as 
there are different kinds of elementary sensations. 

When we say that every sensation has a degree of 
clearness, we mean that it is more or less definitely 
attended to. It is the amount of attention that de- 
termines the clearness of the sensation. A noise, 



194 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

though faint, may be clear, if we attend to it, while 
a very bright light may be scarcely perceived, if our 
mind is on something else. Intensity and clearness 
do not necessarily go together. However, it is true 
that originally the intense experiences are the ones that 
attract attention, and it is further to be remembered 
that by holding an experience in mind we seem to add to 
its intensity and also to increase its duration. A very 
faint noise is no longer heard when our attention relaxes, 
and, on the other hand, it seems to grow in strength when 
we attend to it. 

Classes of Sensations. (a) Visual Sensations. — 
One of the most important of our sensory experiences 
is that of vision. The visual sensation is due to light 
waves in the external world acting upon the sensitive 
parts of the eye. Differences in intensity in visual 
sensations are known as brightness differences ; differences 
in quality include color differences and differences in 
shades of gray, ranging from white to black. The 
brightness has to do with the amount of luminosity in 
the sensation. For example, when I turn down the 
lights in my study, the brightness is decreased. It is 
brighter on a sunny than on a cloudy day ; brightness 
decreases as the twilight grows, and so on. 

All visual sensations must have some degree of bright- 
ness, but color may be absent. For example, the 
various shades of gray are bright, but they do not possess 
color. On the other hand, all colors have some degree 



SENSATION AND BEHAVIOR 1 95 

of brightness. A red with no brightness could not be 
seen. Decrease the luminosity of any color, and it 
finally will vanish. 

The Color Qualities. — Color qualities are numerous. 
It is estimated that there are about 30,000 different 
color sensations that can be distinguished. There are, 
however, but nine actually different colors, or hues. 
These are red, orange, yellow, yellow-green, green, blue- 
green, blue, violet, and purple. All of these except purple 
are found in the solar spectrum, and form the colors 
of the rainbow. Out of these nine colors, four are called 
" elementary," for in them no other more simple hues 
can be detected. Red, yellow, green, and blue are 
these four colors. Red is just red, and nothing more. 
Orange, however, contains both red and yellow, yellow- 
green and blue-green are both compounds, while violet 
and purple contain both blue and red. By mixing hues 
in various ways and adding also various amounts of gray, 
the 30,000 different colors can be produced. 

When a hue has all of the color possible in it, it is said 
to be fully saturated. A red that is just as red as it can 
be, a blue that has all of the quaHty of blueness possible, 
are such saturated colors. The saturation of a color is 
decreased by mixing it with some shade of gray. The 
light grays produce tints and the dark grays, shades. 

Contrast and Adaptation. — Certain colors antagonize, 
or contrast with others. For example, red and blue-green 
form such a contrast. Two such colors when prop- 



196 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

erly mixed produce a shade of gray. These colors 
mutually destroy each other and leave nothing but a 
gray of a certain brightness. Such antagonizing colors 
are called complementary. For every color there is 
another complementary color. Two complementary 
colors when brought close together produce a marked 
contrasting effect, each color enhancing the other. For 
example, yellow appears more yellow and blue more 
blue when these two colors are placed side by side. 

The eye easily becomes adapted to both color and 
brightness. If you put on a pair of blue glasses, for a 
while the entire landscape appears blue, but this effect 
wears away, and after a time you are not aware of it. 
The landscape again appears quite normal. We or- 
dinarily notice adaptation most strikingly when we come 
from the bright sunlight into a room with drawn shades. 
At first we can hardly grope our way around, for our 
eyes are adapted to the sunlight. After a while they 
become adapted to the darkened room, and then objects 
in it are distinctly visible. 

Other sense organs besides the eye show this ability to adapt 
themselves to various forms of stimulation. It is a weU-known 
fact that after a time odors lose their strength, and that sensations 
of warmth and cold tend to become neutral. We do not notice the 
pressure of our clothing, candy becomes less sweet after we have 
eaten a quantity, and a lemon that at first is so sour that we make 
a wry face when we suck it loses some of its disagreeable quality. 

After-images. — Another interesting fact in regard 
to color sensation is found in after-images. If you look 



SENSATION AND BEHAVIOR 197 

steadily at a patch of saturated color for about thirty- 
seconds and then close your eyes, or look away at a gray 
background, you will see a similar patch of the com- 
plementary color; a yellow patch giving an indigo, and a 
green patch a purple, for example. These after-images 
are called negative because they appear in the color that 
contrasts with the object originally gazed at. There are 
also after-images that are positive, — that is, of the same 
kind as the original object. These are best seen in con- 
nection with colorless objects. If you look at a very 
bright light for an instant and then suddenly close the 
eyes, or look at a dark background, the original light 
seems to continue for some seconds, though you are no 
longer looking at it. The trail to a rocket, or to a shoot- 
ing star, is a positive after-image. There is no actual 
trail; it is merely " in the eye." These positive after- 
images often appear at night when you are walking on a 
street ablaze with electric signs. Not infrequently, as 
you turn your gaze away from the actual objects them- 
selves, you may see these signs written in letters of fire 
on the dark sky. Sometimes, too, these letters appear 
dark, rather than bright. This is because you have 
gazed so long at the letters that you get the negative 
after-image. 

The Color Zones of the Retina. — If you look directly 
at an object, you will see it accurately in its proper color ; 
if, however, you see the color at one side, it tends to lose 
its quality. Red and green are seen in their true colors 



198 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

only a short distance from the center of vision, while 
blue and yellow are clearly observed much farther to 
the side. On the extreme edge of the eye all colors ap- 
pear gray. The margin of the eye seems to have little 
abiHty to see color. 

This interesting fact may be shown as follows : Shut the left eye 
and gaze with the right at a dot marked on the wall, or better still, 
on a large sheet of gray paper. Have an assistant bring a small 
piece of colored paper attached to a stick slowly toward the dot 
from right to left. With your gaze steadily fixed on the dot, you 
wiU first see the colored paper as a gray object and only later in its 
true color. If it is blue or yellow, you wUl detect the color sooner 
than if it is red or green. Purple paper will first seem colorless, 
then blue, and finally in its true color. This is due to the fact that 
the blue in the paper can be seen sooner than the red portion of 
the mixture. Likewise in an orange mixture the yellow component 
will first appear. 

Perception of Form Involves other than Visual Sen- 
sations. — It should be remembered that the eye sees 
not only colors and grays of various degrees of bright- 
ness, including white and black, but also form. Like- 
wise it observes the position of objects in space. It 
distinguishes right from left, up from down, and near 
from far. We are not obliged actually to touch objects 
to know where they are in space. 

Without making actual measurements, we judge that a certain 
building is a mile away ; that a tree is one hundred feet tall ; that 
this stick is a yard long. The judgment of distances and positions 
in space is not due, however, to simple sensations, but to percep- 
tions that have gradually been built up in our experience. We 



SENSATION AND BEHAVIOR 1 99 

know the meaning of a mile only after we have had experience in 
walking, or the significance of a yard after we have used objects 
of that or a similar extent. In other words, our behavior in rela- 
tion to these positions in space makes up the perception. 

(b) Auditory Sensation. — We have seen that the 
qualities of visual sensation differ in two fundamental 
ways, — namely, in sensations of colored and of colorless 
light (white, gray, and black). We find a somewhat 
similar difference in regard to sensations furnished by 
the ear. A sound may be either a noise or a tone. 
Noise is generally less pleasant than tone. 

Tonal Sensations and their Characteristics. — Tones 
lie at the basis of music. Their qualitative attribute is 
known as pitch, or tone quality, i.e., the tone is high or 
low. The intensive attribute is known as intensity, — 
that is, the tone is loud or soft. The timbre of a tone is 
due to the instrument which sets it up. The same musi- 
cal note sounds different when it is produced by a 
violin than it does when it comes from a pipe organ. 
Consonant tones unite with one another, as for example 
the C and G on the piano ; tones like C and C * are 
harsh and disagreeable. Such tones are dissonant. 
When consonant tones are sounded together, they 
blend, or fuse. This can be shown by striking the 
various chords on the piano. It is difficult, even for 
the experienced ear, to pick out all of the simple tones 
that make up some of these fusions. 

All sound is caused by vibrations of the air particles. 



200 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

Irregular vibrations produce noise and regular vibrations 
tone. These vibrations are carried to the ear drum and 
then conveyed through what is known as the middle 
ear to the inner ear, where the sense organs of hearing 
are to be found. These are affected by the stimulation, 
and this is carried on up the auditory nerve to the 
cortex, and we become conscious of the sound. 

The inner ear contains not only the sense organs of hearing, but 
also of equilibrium. Through this sense we can tell something of 
the position of our bodies, though we may not be able to see. The 
diver knows through this sense how to come to the surface of the 
water. If it is injured, or lacking, he may be unable to tell in 
what direction to go, and consequently he may drown. 

(c) Taste or Gustatory Sensation. — The sense organs 
of taste are to be found on the tongue and the soft palate. 
Substances in liquid form, or that can be dissolved in the 
mouth, excite these sense organs. There are but four 
tastes, — sweet, bitter, sour, and salt. All other so- 
called tastes are really odors. If the sense of smell is 
cut ofE by stopping the nostrils with cotton, strong 
coffee and weak quinine will taste aUke, vinegar and 
lemon juice are merely sour, and so on. We know that 
it is the common practice to hold the nose when taking 
some disagreeable medicine. Then it does not " taste 
so bad." As a matter of fact, the smell is the dis- 
agreeable part of the sensation. 

(d) Olfactory Sensations. — The sense organs of smell 
are ,to be found in the upper portion of the nose. These 



SENSATION AND BEHAVIOR 20I 

are stimulated by substances in the form of a gas. There 
are many kinds of odors, but no exact classification has 
been made of them. There are odors of fruits, of cam- 
phor and spice, of flowers, of musk, of onions and garlic, 
of burning tobacco, coffee and toast, of cheese, of opium, 
and of decaying animal matter. Some psychologists 
have tried to put all possible odors in one or another of 
these classes, but such an arrangement is not very satis- 
factory. One reason why our knowledge of odors is so 
extremely limited is doubtless due to the fact that the 
sense of smell has but slight practical use in directing 
our behavior, and for this reason has been but little ob- 
served. The practical value of smell is much greater in 
many of the animals below man than it is in the human 
race. 

{e) Dermal Sensations. — In the skin are to be found 
various sense organs that are affected by stimulations 
of three different kinds and are connected with the sen- 
sations of pressure, temperature, and pain. 

There are no other sensations that come from the skin 
except these three. Such experiences as wetness, dry- 
ness, sharpness, smoothness, and roughness are merely 
compounds or fusions of these three fundamental sensa- 
tions, often with added sensations of movement. Wet- 
ness is, for example, a blending of the temperature sen- 
sation with pressure. This is clearly shown when you 
hold your hand before a pipe discharging cool compressed 
air. The air rushes out and strikes the hand with a 



202 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

strong impact. This pressure sensation combined with 

that of coolness results in a sensation similar to that 

caused by holding the hand under a faucet of running 

water. There are also other sensory experiences coming 

from the skin, Hke itch and tickle. These are likewise 

fusions. 

It is an interesting fact that the points of origin of the various 
skin sensations are not equally distributed over it, but are located in 
small spots. If a blunt-pointed piece of cold metal, or a lead- 
pencil not too finely sharpened, be moved over the back of the 
hand, for example, there will be found small areas, scarcely more 
than points, at which a distinctly cold sensation will flash forth, 
but there will be larger spaces between these points which do not 
respond to the cold stimulation. If the metal point is warmed and 
moved over the same portion of the skin, similar but not identical 
points responding to the warm stimulation wiU be found. If the 
skin is tapped with a horsehair, pressure spots can be located. 
Pain spots are also found by using a stiff hair, pointed at the end 
and pressed down on various parts of the skin. There are some 
parts of the body that are extremely sensitive to pain, while others 
are incapable of sensing the prick of a needle. 

(/) Kinesthetic Sensations. — Sensory nerves run 
from the muscles, the tendons, and the joints, and sen- 
sations arise at these points, — the " muscular " sensa- 
tions from muscles, " strain " sensations from tendons, 
and " articular " sensations from joints. These sensa- 
tions, although not commonly attended to, are extremely 
important in the behavior of the individual. Without 
them accurate movement would be impossible. We can 
write with our eyes closed and walk about without no- 



SENSATION AND BEHAVIOR 203 

ticing every step that we take. The ability to improve 
our behavior, — to make it more accurate and efl&cient, 
is due largely to these motor or kincesthetic sensations. 
They inform us immediately of the way in which we are 
acting in the situation before us. 

(g) Organic Sensations. — There is still one further 
group of sensations. These are called the organic. They 
arise in connection with the activities of the internal 
organs. Hunger, thirst, nausea, and sensations arising 
from breathing and the circulation of the blood are ex- 
amples of organic sensations. These sometimes play 
an important part in our emotional experiences, as we 
have already seen. They have also a good deal to do 
with our so-called " self -feelings." Because they are 
so thoroughly fused with other parts of consciousness, 
however, they are difficult to analyze, and compara- 
tively little is known about them. 

The Significance of Sensory Defects. — Since all of 
our experiences come originally through the avenue of 
one or more of the senses described above, it follows that 
any attempt to educate the individual will be useless 
unless these senses are actively working. The person 
who has lost his eyesight or who is deaf will be badly 
handicapped in his learning. A few individuals who have 
lost the two important senses of sight and hearing have 
with great labor been educated through the channels of 
the dermal and also of the motor sensations. Such 
persons evidently need very special treatment, and 



204 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

their education must be for the most part individual. 
As far as the public school is concerned, a more serious 
problem arises than that of educating those who cannot 
see or hear. This comes in connection with those pupils 
who are not actually blind or deaf, but whose vision is 
faulty and whose hearing is poor. This dullness of sen- 
sation often prevents such children from understanding 
the ordinary school instruction, and they are looked upon 
not infrequently as backward or even feeble-minded. 
There are a few simple tests that can be used in a rough 
way to discover these lacks, and they should be appUed 
to find out as far as possible whether any of the pupils 
in the school are suffering under serious handicaps in their 
learning. Investigations have shown that eye defects 
are extremely common among school children and that 
deafness is also an important factor in retarding the 
pupils. 

Color Blindness and Tonal Deafness. — There are 
also some individuals who, while they may be able to 
see clearly, are color bUnd. They cannot distinguish 
certain colors. To most color-bHnd persons both red 
and green appear as gray, although blue and yellow are 
rightly sensed. There are also a few individuals who 
may be described as " tone-deaf." Their hearing in the 
ordinary sense of the word may be good, but their 
ability to distinguish tones is very slight. 

The Place of " Sense Training " in Education. — An 
important question arises in the education of the child 



SENSATION AND BEHAVIOR 205 

in the kindergarten and the primary grades as to the 
place of " sense training." It is generally agreed that 
a certain amount of this is not only beneficial but nec- 
essary. Children should be taught to distinguish colors 
and to discriminate between various shades of gray ; they 
should be able to tell by simple touch and with closed 
eyes the difference between silk, velvet, satin, cotton, 
and other fabrics ; they should have practice in recog- 
nizing various pitches that they hear sounded and in 
picking out the separate tones in a chord struck on the 
piano ; they should be able to tell with fair accuracy the 
weight of different objects by lifting them ; to estimate 
length, breadth, and area without measuring the objects, 
and so on. In fact there is not one of the important 
senses that cannot through special training be made more 
effective as an avenue of learning. During the preadoles- 
cent period, children may be easily interested in exercises 
of this sort, as the success of the Montessori methods 
has proved. Of course, such exercises are not merely 
an education in sensation. They involve perception, 
discrimination, and judgment. 

Definitions and Explanation of Terms Used 

Introspection. — Observing the mental processes as 
they go on in one's consciousness. 

Sensation. — Those processes of consciousness that 
arise in connection with the stimulation of a sense organ 
and the transmission of this stimulation to neurones 



2o6 * HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

lying in the cerebral cortex. In adult experience there 
are no pure sensations, but rather sensations inter- 
preted; thsit is, perceptions. This interpretation of sen- 
sation is the result of the activities that take place in 
response to the stimulation connected with the sensation. 

Attributes of sensation. — An attribute of a sensation 
is any aspect of the sensation that is necessary for the 
sensation's existence. 

Intensity. — This is one of the attributes of sensation. 
Every sensation must have a certain degree of strength, 
or intensity. A light of zero intensity would be complete 
darkness. 

Duration. — A second attribute of sensation. A sen- 
sation that did not last for a certain length of time, no 
matter how brief, would not be a sensation. 

Quality. — The attribute of a sensation that gives 
it a particular name ; that distinguishes it from other 
sensations. Sight is thus distinguished from hearing, 
pressure, taste, smell, and so on. 

Clearness. — This is the fourth attribute of sensation. 
Every sensation must have a certain degree of clearness; 
that is, it must be more or less in the center of attention. 
It may be just barely perceived or it may be given un- 
divided attention, as the case may be. 

Brightness. — The brightness of a visual sensation is its 
luminosity. Sensations of color possess some degree of 
brightness, though brightness may be present without 
color, as in the case of white and the various grays. 



SENSATION AND BEHAVIOR 207 

Hue. — The hue of a color distinguishes it from other 
colors. The principal hues are red, yellow, green, and 
blue. These are called primary colors because they are 
not made up of other colors, as are orange (red and 
yellow), violet (blue and red), and so on. All of the hues 
are to be found in the rainbow or solar spectrum with 
the exception of purple. 

Saturation. — When a hue has in it all the color pos- 
sible, — when red cannot be more red, or a blue more 
blue, — it is said to be completely saturated. The 
saturation may be made less by adding white or gray. 
White and Ught grays added to colors give tints and 
the dark grays give shades. 

Complementary colors. — Every color has an antag- 
onistic color that is its exact opposite. If these two 
colors are mixed in proper proportions, they neutralize 
each other and give a gray. Thus red and a bluish 
green and orange and blue are such complementary 
colors. These colors when not mixed, but placed side 
by side, form color contrasts. A strip of orange paper 
placed beside a strip of blue paper produces such a con- 
trast. The edge of the blue near the orange looks more 
blue and the edge of the orange near the blue seems a 
richer orange than when these two colors are not so 
contrasted. Dark and light grays also form contrasts. 

Visual adaptation. — When the eye gazes at one color 
for some time, the color seems to lose its richness. If 
you look at the landscape through a piece of yellow glass, 



208 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

it at first seems very yellow, but after a little time this 
effect gradually wears away until it is scarcely to be 
noticed. The eye is adapted not only to color but to 
brightness. On coming out of a dark room everything 
at first seems unusually bright, but the effect wears off. 
If you go into a dark room, at first you can see nothing, 
but after a short time objects become dimly visible be- 
cause the eye has become adapted to the darkness. 
Other senses beside vision show similar capacity for 
adaptation. Smells fade out, tastes lose their intensity, 
and touch and temperature sensations are scarcely 
noticed after they have been present for some time. 

After-images. — If an object is gazed at for a certain 
length of time, it may seem to be present after it has been 
actually removed. If it appears in the same color and 
intensity, it is called a positive after-image; if it appears 
in the opposite color and intensity, it is called a negative 
after-image. There are after-images of some of the other 
senses as well as of vision, as, for example, of touch and 
temperature. 

Noise and tone. — Sensations of sound are either 
noise or tone. The best examples of tones are to be 
found in sounding bells, tuning forks, and musical in- 
struments. Noises are rumbling, grating, hissing, and 
so on. In most noises there is some tone, and vice versa. 

Pitch. — All tones, and perhaps all sounds, have a 
certain pitch; that is, they are high or low. 

Timbre. — Every tone possesses a certain character- 



SENSATION AND BEHAVIOR 209 

istic that gives an idea of the nature of the instrument 
producing it. The same note sounds different when 
struck on a piano than when played on a flute or an organ. 

Consonance and dissonance. — When several tones 
blend harmoniously they are consonant ; when they do 
not so blend, but produce a jarring effect, they are dis- 
sonant. When they blend so that the various compo- 
nent tones run together and are not easily recognized, 
they are said to be fused. There are fusions of this sort 
in all of the senses. 

Sense of equilibrium. — This informs us of the posi- 
tion of our bodies in space without the aid of vision. 
The sense organ of equilibrium is in the inner ear. 

Kincesthetic sensations. — Sensations that give us in- 
formation in regard to the movements of the various 
parts of the body, including the organs of speech, loco- 
motion, manipulation, etc. 

Organic sensations. — These arise from the activity of 
the various internal organs of our bodies. They come 
from the beating of the heart and the tension of the 
blood vessels, from the activities of stomach and intes- 
tines (in digestion), and so on. They generally blend 
together, giving us a massive sensation of our " per- 
sonality." 

Color blindness. — This is a defect in vision that pre- 
vents the person afflicted from seeing certain colors 
(usually red and green) as they really are. These colors 
are confused with each other and with gray. 



2IO HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

Questions and Exercises 

1. Distinguish between affection and sensation as elements of 
consciousness. State the function of each with reference to be- 
havior. 

2. What is meant by the term "sense organ" ? 

3. Make a list of the sensations that you experience during 
an interval of two minutes. What sense organs are active in fur- 
nishing these sensations ? 

4. Name and illustrate the four attributes of sensation. 

5. What is the distinction between brightness and color in 
visual sensations? What is meant by the "saturation" of a 
color ? If a "spectrum chart " is available, make a list of the colors 
(fl) in the order of their saturation ; (b) in the order of their bright- 
ness. 

6. What is meant by "complementary" colors? Name the 
complement of each color on the spectrum. (If a "color mixer" 
is available, it is an interesting exercise to demonstrate the laws 
of color mixture. Disks of colored paper, representing all of the 
primary hues, should be provided. By making a slit along a 
radius of each disk, two disks may be placed together upon the 
mixer in such a way that the colors may be combined in any de- 
sired proportion. The mixing is accomplished by rapidly rotating 
the disks; this, it will be understood, is not an objective mixing 
of the pigments ; the rapid rotation prevents the two colors from 
being seen separately, and the combination or fusion, which is 
different from either of the original colors, really takes place in 
the retina£ of the eyes.) 

7. Fix upon a sheet of white paper a one-inch square of red 
or blue ; place the sheet about twelve inches from the eye ; 
look at it for one minute (holding the hand over one eye) ; then 
replace the sheet with another which shows only a white surface. 
The negative after-image will be clearly projected against the 
second sheet. 

8. The color zones of the retina may be mapped upon a 



SENSATION AND BEHAVIOR 211 

blackboard. The base of the board should not be more than 
twenty-four inches from the floor. The person whose color zones 
are to be mapped should be seated so that the eyes will be four 
feet from the board. Upon the board at the level of the observer's 
eyes, make a "fixation" mark (a small Greek cross with arms an 
inch long and an inch wide may be marked in with white crayon) ; 
and through this fixation point draw with white crayon light radiat- 
ing lines ; at least eight lines (including the vertical and horizontal 
axes) should be drawn. Disks of red, green, yellow, and blue 
cardboard one and one half inches in diameter should be prepared 
and attached to Ught wooden wands. The observer is seated in a 
comfortable position, and yet in such a way that the head is 
immovable. One eye should be blindfolded, and the other should 
fixate the Greek cross. The experimenter than takes the blue disk, 
holding it from him by the wand, and passes it along one of the lines 
from the periphery toward the center. At first the observer (still 
keeping his eye upon the fixation point) will see no color whatso- 
ever in the disk, but, as the experimenter moves it slowly toward 
the center, a point will be reached where the color is clearly per- 
ceived. When this point is reached, the observer says, "Now," 
and the experimenter marks the point on the line. Then, starting 
from the center, he moves the disk outward, the observer still keep- 
ing his eye upon the fixation point. When the color is no longer 
seen, the signal is given, and the experimenter marks the point. 
This will not always be identical with the point found on the first 
test, and it is well to take as the final limit of the color vision, a 
point halfway between the two points so determined. The re- 
maining lines are traversed in the same way, and then the middle 
points upon all of the lines are connected, preferably with crayon 
of the same color as that of the disk used in the experiment. 
The zones for the other colors may then be determined in the 
same way. 

g. What are some of the differences between tones and noises ? 
With what differences in the physical stimuli are these conscious 
differences correlated? 



212 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

10. What are the four qualities of taste sensations ? To what 
sensations are many of the experiences commonly spoken of as 
tastes due? What taste sensations do you get from coffee? 
From lemonade ? From butter ? 

11. What three types of sensations are furnished by the skin? 
Move a lead pencil (not sharply pointed) lightly and slowly over 
the skin and locate the "cold spots" on the back of the hand. 
What parts of the skin seem to be most numerously suppUed with 
pressure sense organs ? 

12. From what sense organs do we receive sensations of move- 
ment ? It has been said that, of all the kinds of sensation, those 
informing us of the movements of the body are the last that we 
could get along without. Can you justify this statement ? 

13. What is included under the term "organic sensations"? 
Why is so little known about this group of sensations ? 

14. What sensations are particularly important in the work of 
education, and why ? What are some of the more common sensory 
defects ? 

15. What is meant by "sense training, " and what is its place in 
education ? 



CHAPTER XIII 

PERCEPTION AND BEHAVIOR 

In discussing sensation in the preceding chapter, it 
was said that all sensory experiences in the mature or 
adult consciousness are something more than sensations. 
In a word, they are sensations plus meaning. This mean- 
ing given to the sensation makes it a perception. Further, 
the meaning is gained through action. It is because 
we behave in certain ways in reference to certain sensa- 
tions that they have gained the meaning that they have 
for us, — that they have become perceptions. 

This book that I see before me has a meaning as a book in terms 
of what I can do with it, not simply in terms of its appearance to 
the eye. It is a book because I can handle it, turn its pages and 
read its contents. Similarly, the bell that I hear has a meaning in 
so far as my behavior has some relation to it. If I recognize it as a 
dinner bell, the sensation means that I respond in some way to the 
sound, either actually or in imagination. Conduct, either by my- 
self or by some one else, either actually executed or merely pictured 
in the mind, gives the whole meaning that the sound has as dinner 
bell. If I perceive the sound as some other kind of a bell, then the 
meaning that I give is to be analyzed in terms of another kind 
of behavior. The fire bell means a certain form of behavior, the 
car bell another, and the telephone bell a third. Further, the fire 
beU means one kind of behavior for the fireman, another kind for 
the crowd in the street ; the car bell calls forth one kind of action 
from the motorman, another from the passenger, another from the 

213 



214 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

driver of a near-by wagon; the telephone bell signifies a certain 
sort of conduct for the owner of the 'phone and another sort for the 
person in the next apartment who happens to hear it. 

Meanings come from Adjustment. — Meanings are 
made and changed in terms of behavior, and of behavior 
alone. We perceive objects only in so far as they are 
directly or indirectly recognized as influencing actions. 
An object that could not call forth any kind of activity 
in reference to it would be no object at all. This point 
of view is of the greatest importance in the field of edu- 
cation. Following this principle, one may say that all 
learning finally consists in doing. Not only is the edu- 
cated man equipped through his education to act properly, 
but also he has gained this education by acting. The 
process of learning is not a passive process in which a 
certain amount of information is poured into the pupil. 
The child must in some way act in reference to the facts 
that are presented to him before he really learns anything. 

In recent years this principle of activity on the part of the child 
in connection with his learning has been generally recognized. 
In the kindergarten and in the primary grades the child is required 
to perform various acts in reference to the objects that form the 
materials of his instruction. He gets a certain meaning for the 
word "ball" when he pronounces it, or writes it, or draws the ob- 
ject that it represents ; another meaning when he handles the ball 
itself, throws it, and rolls it about. A yard means something to 
the child that actually measures it oflf on the floor of the schoolroom ; 
the pupil perceives that two pints make a quart when he fills up the 
quart pitcher from a pint measure ; number work acquires a new 
meaning when the arithmetical processes are employed in actual 



PERCEPTION AND BEHAVIOR 21$ 

situations, as, for example, in the school bank. In connection with 
every subject of the school curriculum some form of conduct is 
necessary for substantial learning. Examples need hardly be 
multiplied to enforce this important principle. 

Meanings are Individual. — Since various objects 
and situations mean different things to different persons, 
in so far as they have behaved differently toward these 
objects and situations, it is evident that this difference 
in meaning must always be taken into consideration. 
This is a fact that has long been known, but not suffi- 
ciently regarded. We are likely to think that a situa- 
tion which means one thing for us means the same for 
everybody else, — a source of trouble when we are deal- 
ing with others. It is particularly fatal for the teacher 
to assume that the child attaches the same meaning to 
objects and events that the adult attaches to them. The 
child's experience has been extremely limited, and the 
meanings that the most common things possess are often 
fragmentary, inadequate, and obscure. It becomes the 
business of the teacher, therefore, and of all others who 
are dealing with children or adults in a practical way, 
to discover the meanings that the ordinary situations 
in life possess for those who are to be taught. // is fatal 
to assume that the same thing, the same word, the same act, 
the same event, have the same meaning for all. 

A nximber of investigations have been conducted in regard to 
the meanings that common objects possess for the child at the 
beginning of his school life ; and the results have clearly shown that 
very little can be assumed as to what the child actually knows, 



2l6 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

even about the most simple things. It is particularly true that 
the city child has a very inadequate perception of the scenes and 
events that belong to country life, and it is useless to talk to him 
about these unless they have acquired for him some definite mean- 
ing. It is also true that the country child has a very imperfect 
comprehension of many of the things that are familiar to the city 
child. It would be a great advantage if the city child could spend 
some time in the country and if the country child could visit the 
city. However, since this is often impossible, the teacher must 
rely on a large amount of illustrative material in dealing with those 
things with which the child has had little or no acquaintance. 
Charts, models, lantern slides, and stereoscopic views are impor- 
tant aids in instruction if properly used. It is probable that in the 
years to come the moving picture wiU be employed more and more 
as a means of making things remote from the child's experience 
reaUy vital factors in his daily life. 

Objective Teaching in Developing Meanings. — It fol- 
lows from the fact that perceptions arise through active 
experience with the objects to which they are attached 
that this experience should be as direct as possible. The 
mistake should not he made of attempting to explain what 
can he at once perceived. More facts can be learned in 
regard to the nature of various wild animals by a half 
day's visit to the zoological gardens than by months of 
explanation. This does not mean that the child or adult 
should not be guided in forming proper perceptions and 
that the mere presentation of the object is sufficient, but 
it does mean that a large amount of elaborate explana- 
tion and discussion is often worse than a waste of time. 

In the past teachers have overestimated the importance of 
explanation and elaboration in the instruction of children. They 



PERCEPTION AND BEHAVIOR 217 

have often explained the obvious, only to confuse the child. It is 
more important to perceive that a thing is so than to attempt to 
explain why it is so. In elementary instruction the object to be 
studied should be presented to the child, and he should be guided 
to discover the more important facts concerning it by the means of 
a few straightforward and direct questions. Those things that he 
cannot perceive by this means are too difficult for him to compre- 
hend-'by more elaborate and abstract methods. Explanation will 
OHiy add to his confusion and uncertainty. 

Apperception. — The term " apperception " is one that 
is often used in psychology, especially in its application 
to education. Apperception and perception are not 
essentially different. In either case the present experi- 
ence is given its meaning in terms of the past behavior 
in regard to similar experiences. It is true that as we ad- 
vance in life we build up a number of different attitudes 
in regard to the typical situations that confront us, and 
these attitudes may be considered as habitual tendencies 
to behave in certain definite ways in the presence of these 
situations. These habitual attitudes constitute the 
"apperceptive bases" for interpreting new experiences. 
It is a fact of everyday experience that the business 
man, the professional man, the artist, the teacher, the 
farmer, have different points of view that must be con- 
sidered in dealing with these different groups. What 
will strongly influence one group will have no effect on 
another. The politician in particular recognizes this, 
and in his appeals to the electorate he fashions his 
course accordingly. The most successful candidate for 



2l8 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

office is generally he who appeals to a few fundamental 
apperceptive bases that are shared by a majority of the 
people. It is he that " feels the public pulse." The 
person who is " remote from the masses " is he who 
either cannot comprehend their point of view, or if he 
does comprehend it, has no sympathy for it. 

No more important educational principle has ever been for- 
mulated than that which reads, "Bring the instruction down to the 
apperception of the pupU." His knowledge of facts, his prejudices, 
his point of view must be understood, if his range of information 
is to be widened and his conduct influenced. It is particularly 
important that the teacher does not "go over the heads" of his 
pupils ; it is equally important for the teacher not to arouse 
the antagonism of those under him, by disregarding their ideals 
and prejudices. The teacher in a new locality should be extremely 
careful not to praise unduly the locality from which he comes. 
He must have a regard for "local pride," if he expects to get a 
sympathetic hearing. Nothing is more disastrous than to get out 
of touch with one's pupils at the start. 

True and False Perceptions. — Since perception in- 
terprets sensations, gives them a meaning, it follows that 
this meaning may be correct or incorrect and that the 
perception may be true or false. In regard to pure sen- 
sation, the question of its truth or falsity could never 
arise. It is an immediate fact and as such cannot be 
doubted. If I have a sensation of redness, it can be 
neither true nor false ; it simply is; it merely exists, and 
this existence is a fact of consciousness that cannot be 
questioned. When, however, I perceive the redness as 
the cover of a book, I may be right or wrong ; the ob- 



PERCEPTION AND BEHAVIOR 



219 



ject may be what I perceive it to be, or it may not be. 
Even the redness as such may be wrongly interpreted. 
I have a sensation of redness, but as soon as I assume that 
this redness belongs to some external object, then there 
is the possibility of an error. As sensation it exists, 
but as a red object perceived, it may or may not be 
there in the world outside of me. It may, for ex- 
ample, be merely an after-image and wholly " in my 
eye." When I call it red, I thereby imply that it 
is an object that will be experienced as red by others 
and by myself at different times ; in other words, that it 
is something that has a reality be- 
yond my immediate sensation. 

Behavior the Criterion of True and 
False. — When we ask how the true 
and the false perception may be dis- 
tinguished, our fundamental principle 
of behavior becomes of immediate 
service. We can find out only by our 
conduct and the conduct of others 
whether or not our perception is cor- 
rect. If the perception that I have will 
" work "in my subsequent behavior, then 
I may be reasonably sure that it is true; 
if it will not " work,''^ then I am 
obliged to consider it false. 



f r^^ 



N 



N 



a e y, c 



^ 



^%^y 



^'^y^A% 



z^-^ 



\l i 15 

1 1 1 

h f a 

Fig. 8. — The Zollner 
Illusion. (From Calkins, 
"A First Book in Psy- 
chology," Fig. 25.) 



A few illustrations will serve to make this point clear. In the 
accompanying illustration known as the Zollner figure (Fig. 8), 



220 



HUMAN BEHAVIOR 



the heavy black Unes do not appear to be parallel. That is my 
immediate perception of this figure. However, if I examine it 
further, I will find, on measuring the distance between the black 
lines, that it is the same at all points, and that my original per- 
ception does not agree with my subsequent experience in regard 
to these Unes. Another example of this same fact is found in the 
false perception in regard to the area of the two accompanying 
figures from Wundt (Fig. 9). The area of the upper figure 
appears to be much smaller than the area of the lower. However, 
if the position of these two figures is reversed, it will be found 

that their size seems also to 
be reversed, the figure occupy- 
ing the lower position always 
appearing to be the larger. 
Now, if I place one figure upon 
the other, they will appear to 
be exactly the same. Numer- 
ous illustrations of false per- 
ceptions of this type could be 
given. 

One of the most striking in- 
stances of a false perception to 
be found in literature is that 
of the "air- drawn" dagger in Macbeth. It appeared to the over- 
wrought brain of Macbeth as a substantial reality, but it would 
not stand the test of actually being grasped. In other words 
Macbeth could not behave toward it as he coidd toward a real dagger. 
He could not make the perception "work out" in his conduct. This 
is the only way by which we may distinguish reality from un- 
reality. 

The true perception may then be defined as a sensory experience 
that will "work" consistently in behavior. The false perception 
fails at certain points to do this. The hills on the horizon in the 
clear sky are perceived as near at hand. I decide to walk to them ; 
but I find it a long journey. My perception of the distance was 




Fig. 9. — Illusion in comparative area 
of two figures, after Wundt. (From 
Titchener, "Experimental Psychology," 
Vol. I, Pt. I, Fig. 48 B.) 



PERCEPTION AND BEHAVIOR 221 

wrong, and my subsequent test of walking to them was not in agree- 
ment with my original idea as to their distance. A person is 
afflicted with a mental disease; he hears voices plotting his de- 
struction, and beheves that he is followed by ruthless enemies. 
His behavior is influenced by these beliefs ; it is no longer in har- 
mony with that of the community, and he becomes dangerous to 
himself and to his fellows. So we judge as to the truth or falsity 
of our own ideas and the ideas of others by an appeal to con- 
duct. This is the final, the only ultimate test. 

Illusions and Hallucinations. — There are two kinds 
of false perceptions, illusions and hallucinations. The 
Zollner and the Wundt figures, previously referred to, 
are illustrations of the former, and the air-drawn dagger 
of Macbeth of the latter. Both the illusion and the 
hallucination agree in the one essential particular, namely, 
that they will not work out consistently in behavior, hut 
they differ, in that an illusion is quite normal, while an 
hallucination is abnormal. I can prove in my own con- 
duct that the palm trees and the pool of water that I 
see over the burning sands of the desert are not really 
there as I perceive them to be, for when I journey to 
the spot, I find no shade to protect me, no water to 
cool my thirst, and no verdure to rest the dazzled eyes. 
My companions, too, have had the same experience as I. 
The illusion is entirely normal. 

With the hallucination, however, this is not true. 
Macbeth alone saw the dagger ; he might even have 
stretched forth his hand and felt its hilt, but others 
would not have had the same experience. His behavior 



222 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

would not then agree with that of the normal individual. 
The person who hears voices plotting his own destruction 
has generally no test by which he can discover that they 
are unreal, but others do not hear them. If all persons 
heard these voices, and if on subsequent tests it was found 
that the actions of all could be based on the perception 
of these voices, then we should conclude that they were 
real. 

Classification of Illusions. — There are two kinds of 
illusions. The first kind arises from the fact that certain 
conditions that ordinarily exist are in the particular 
instance not present, and yet no allowance is made for 
the change. Mention has already been made of the 
hills that on a clear day seem near at hand, when 
in reality they are far away. This illusion is due to the 
fact that ordinarily objects at a distance are seen in a 
haze and are indistinct in outline, while objects that have 
a clear outline are near at hand. However, it happens 
in the particular instance under consideration that the 
atmospheric conditions are different from what they are 
generally, but I make no allowance for the unusual 
clearness of the air, and I perceive the hills as near, 
when in truth they are many miles away. We get the 
exact reverse of this illusion when we perceive objects 
in a fog as remote and as unusually large. Our subse- 
quent behavior, however, shows them to be small and 
near at hand. 

An illusion of the second type arises when we are 



PERCEPTION AND BEHAVIOR 223 

strongly expecting something to happen, when our minds 
are set in a certain direction. I am looking for a friend, 
and I seem to see him many times before he actually 
comes ; I am listening for the toll of the Hghthouse bell, 
as I strain my eyes through the fog and turn my head to 
catch its faintest tone. So I seem to hear it now and 
again, though in reality it is miles away. Illusions of this 
second type depend less on actually existing objective 
conditions than do those of the first type, and they ap- 
proach in kind those false perceptions that have been 
given the name of hallucinations. When the idea in the 
mind becomes unduly powerful, then the individual is 
likely to have distinctly abnormal states of consciousness 
and to become the victim of a genuine hallucination. 
We may remember that eventful journey of Ichabod Crane 
from the house of the Van Tassels through the gloomy 
darkness of Sleepy Hollow. Dejected and filled with 
fear, the mind of the unhappy pedagogue was set in just 
the right direction to get the fearsome experiences that 
came to him in the appearance of the headless horseman. 
He perceived falsely, he acted foolishly. If he had not 
been expecting ghosts, he might not have seen them. 
If his mind had been perfectly normal and his courage 
that of the average man, he would probably have de- 
tected the sham, and hence not have fled ingloriously. 
This illustration of a false perception is one taken from 
the border Hne between an illusion of the second type 
and an hallucination. 



2 24 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

Hallucinations as Symptoms of Mental Disease. — 

Since our discussions do not lead us into the field of 
abnormal psychology, we need not consider the practi- 
cal significance of hallucinations. We need merely to 
say in passing that they are often important symptoms 
in determining the nature of mental diseases. In the 
case of illusions, however, particularly those of the sec- 
ond type, it is a somewhat different matter. Children, 
most often of the primary- school age, get false notions 
in regard to reality, because they are unduly expectant, 
because they think that certain things are Hkely to hap- 
pen, and because they are prone to beheve in manifest 
absurdities. Often these false expectations are due to 
unwise suggestions that they get from their companions. 
They believe that there are dangers hidden in the dark 
because they have been told so, or because the conduct 
of others has led them to beheve so. Little children 
quickly take up these ideas and weave them into realities 
that may result in harmful consequences. Adults must 
be particularly careful to suggest in no way those ideas 
that will work out injuriously in the behavior of the 
children under their charge. The mind of the child is 
highly imaginative and extremely impressionable. A 
word of caution should be said, however, at this point in 
regard to imagination and the danger of confusing it 
with false perception. Imagination, as will be shown in 
the following chapter, is neither deceptive nor false in its 
own nature ; and although a too vivid imagination may 



PERCEPTION AND BEHAVIOR 225 

pass over into an illusion or hallucination, it does not 
generally do so. As will be pointed out, imagination 
gives to us a world of reality not inferior to that opened 
up to us by perception. 

Definitions and Explanation of Terms Used 

Apperception^ like perception, is the interpretation of 
the present experience in terms of our past behavior. 
We generally speak of apperception, however, when we 
mean a highly organized form of perception. Our 
apperceptions are general attitudes toward a large num- 
ber of experiences. The business man has one attitude 
toward the world of commerce, the lawyer another, the 
teacher another. We must know the fundamental at- 
titudes of those with whom we deal, if we are to be 
successful in our deaHngs with them. 

False perceptions are perceptions that will not work 
out in our behavior. The immediate experience of the 
object will not agree with our future experiences. 

Illusion. — An illusion is a normal false perception ; 
all normal persons under similar objective conditions 
will experience the same illusions. 

Hallucination is an abnormal false perception. Only 
the person who is the victim of the hallucination ex- 
periences it. 



226 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

Questions and Exercises 

1. Distinguish by example between a sensation and a percep- 
tion. What essential factor is represented by a perception that 
differentiates it from a mere group of sensations ? 

2. What is the relation of response or behavior to the formation 
of perceptions ? Illustrate. 

3. Give examples which show that the same object means 
different things to different people. Give examples showing how 
the meanings of objects have varied in the course of your own 
experience. 

4. What is the significance of the term "apperception"? 
Refer to the examples called for in Question 3, and show that the 
differences in meanings depend primarily upon differences in atti- 
tude or adjustment. 

5. What is the criterion or standard by which we judge a per- 
ception to be a "true" or a "false" report of conditions in the 
world about us ? 

6. Distinguish between illusions and hallucinations. What 
are the two principal sources of illusions ? 

7. Dlustrate from your own experience how an illusion may 
arise because of unusual objective conditions. Have you ever 
experienced an illusion due to excessive expectancy on your part ? 

8. Dream experiences furnish striking illustrations of hallucina- 
tions. Describe some of your dream hallucinations. 



CHAPTER XIV 

IMAGINATION AND BEHAVIOR 

At the conclusion of the preceding chapter the fact 
was emphasized that imagination is not to be identified 
with false perception. This warning is necessary, since 
not only in general usage, but also in psychology, imag- 
ination is often confused with illusion and hallucination. 
The mental image, however, is no more real nor unreal 
than is the percept ; and, as will be shown later, the 
truth or falsity of imagination is to be tested by exactly 
the same standard as is the truth or falsity of percep- 
tion, i.e., by the criterion of behavior. When I look at 
the table at wliich I am writing, I have sensations of 
color, of pressure, of strain. These are interpreted, and 
I perceive the table. I shut my eyes and recall the table 
in imagination. The object of my consciousness is not 
a table at the moment present to my senses ; it is rather 
the mental image of the table. I am not only conscious 
of the mental image of the table, but I am further aware 
that the immediate object of my consciousness is not then 
and there present to my senses. The mental image has 
with it a certain quahty that distinguishes it from the 
concrete object of perception that is directly present to 
the senses. 

227 



228 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

It is an interesting exercise to analyze the difference between 
the percept, the visual after-image, and the mental image. If 
you observe, for example, a red disk on a gray background, you will 
have before you an object of direct sensory experience ; you will 
perceive the red^disk and the background to which it is attached ; 
if you gaze at this object for a certain length of time under proper 
conditions and then look away, you will get a negative after-image 
of the disk, which will differ in certain particulars from an object 
of direct sensory experience, but which in most particulars will be 
sufficiently like an object actually present to the senses to be easily 
confused with such an object. If now you recall in imagination 
the red disk with its background, you will probably find that it is 
less vivid than either the object itself or the after-image. The 
color of the after-image may seem faded, but there is still a color 
that is of a distinct sensory character; but the imagined red is 
hardly red at all, or any other color. It is not, for example, a 
pink nor a brown. Further, the objective disk has a distinct out- 
line, the after-image is less distinct, but still generally fairly definite, 
while the mental image is hazy and without clear and permanent 
outline. It is much more difficult, too, to hold the mental image 
in attention than it is either the after-image or the actual object. 
Under these conditions it is a simple matter for me to tell whether 
the object before me is to be classed as a percept, an illusion (as 
is the after-image), or, finally, as an object of my imagination. 

Definition of Imagination. — In the light of the above 
considerations, imagination may be defined as the conscious- 
ness of an object of sensory experience with the additional 
consciousness that this object is not immediately present 
to the senses. In other words, in a true state of imagina- 
tion we are always aware that the object of which we are 
conscious is not present at the time and in the place that 
we imagine it to be. I recall the face of a friend, his 



IMAGINATION AND BEHAVIOR 229 

voice, his manner of walking, and so on, but I do not have 
the impression of his actual sensory presence. I know 
that I am imagining. If I had the definite experience 
of his actual sensory presence, I should have either a 
true or a false perception, as the case might be, but not a 
mental image. It is important that we make this dis- 
tinction, for unless we do, we shall continually confuse 
imagination with illusion and hallucination, and as a 
result we shall consider the mental image as something 
unreal, and imagination as a dangerous and misleading 
activity of the mind. 

Truth and Falsity of Imagination. — Imagination, 
then, is not to be considered as something essentially 
deceptive. Its truth or falsity is to be tested in exactly 
the same way that the truth or falsity of perception is 
to be tested, — namely, by actual experience with the 
object of my imagination. 

I imagine how my friend that I knew in the college days of 
long ago will appear, when I once again see him at the approaching 
class reimion. Is my image of him true, or is it false ? This ques- 
tion I can answer only after I have again met him and found out by 
the test of experience whether we can behave toward each other as 
we did in the old-time days. If I find him not essentially changed, 
if I can talk with him in the same familiar way, if we still have the 
same interests and ideas, then I have pictured him substantially 
as he is, although I may not have added enough gray hair to my 
mental representation, nor a sufficient number of pounds to his 
physique. He is the same, I say, for he acts the same toward me, 
and I find that I can act the same toward him. I had a true 
image of my friend. But another friend has grown pompous and 



230 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

dignified, as the years have gone by. He talks only of his pro- 
fession and is remote and distant. How different he is from the 
fellow that used to lead the class cheering and who scorned exces- 
sive dignity and self-importance ! My image had pictured him 
as of old, but I find that the picture does not agree with my later 
experience. I cannot behave toward him as I did in our college 
days, for he has changed his behavior toward me. My mental 
picture of him was false. It failed to fit the case. 

An inventor plans a piece of intricate machinery that he hopes 
will revolutionize industrial conditions and bring him fame and 
fortune. Has he a true image? It all depends on whether his 
machine will do what he thinks it will. The image as such is not 
unreal, because it is an image ; the future will decide whether it is 
practical or not ; whether it will work. If it can be made to fit 
actual conditions, then it is real ; if not, then it must be classed as 
an unreality. 

Reproductive and Productive Imagination. — Imag- 
ination is termed productive when it recombines former 
perceptions in new ways ; when it merely revives a former 
perception or a number of such perceptions, without 
essential change, it is termed reproductive. 

I recall the appearance of the desk at which I have 
been sitting, the face of a friend, or the voice of a singer 
at the opera. These are acts of the reproductive imagi- 
nation. There is nothing new added ; there is merely 
the revival of a past experience. On the other hand, I 
imagine the landscape of the planet Mars, and I do not 
reproduce what I have already experienced ; I put to- 
gether in new ways bits of landscape that I have seen in 
actual life, or in pictures, and this recombination gives 
me something unhke anything I have ever seen. All 



IMAGINATION AND BEHAVIOR 23 1 

works of art, all the ideas of great inventors, all the 
schemes of political parties and the projects of men of 
affairs rest in the last analysis on the abihty to recombine 
in new ways elements drawn from past experience. 
These creations may be real or unreal ; it all depends on 
whether they can be actually made to work in everyday 
experience. It can thus be seen that to stamp imagina- 
tion as such as unreal would be to stamp most that is essen- 
tial in human life as unreal. Without reproductive 
imagination the past would be gone beyond recall, and 
without productive imagination not a plan could be 
formed for the future ; not an ideal could be made to 
stand forth as a reality ; indeed, there would be nothing 
but the present, and that would be without significance 
or importance, since it could not be compared with the 
past, nor related to the future. 

It must be remembered that, while productive imagination is 
creative in the sense that it calls to the mind something never 
actually experienced in the form that the imagination presents it, 
the elements which enter into this creation are themselves not mere 
mental products. They have formed a part of past experience. 
The wildest imaginings, the most impossible fancies of the mentally 
deranged, all have had some reference to previous experience. 
Nothing comes into the mind in the first instance except through 
direct sensory experience. It may be worked over and recom- 
bined, but nothing absolutely new is added. 

Kinds of Mental Imagery. — It is generally held by 
psychologists that there are as many kinds of imagination 
as there are various kinds of sensation. Thus, it is said 



232 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

that there are images of sight, hearing, touch, temperature, 
pain, taste, smell, movement (of the muscles, joints, and 
tendons) , and of the sensations coming from the internal 
organs. It seems quite certain that we have visual 
images of brightness, color, and form and also images of 
tones and noises, although the visual images are the most 
common of all. It has been doubted by some psychol- 
ogists whether we have any genuine images belonging 
to the other senses. What we often think is a motor 
image, or an organic image may actually be a faint 
sensation. For example, when I think of bowing my 
head or of raising my arm, the motor image that seems 
to be aroused may in reahty consist of sensations set 
up when I quite unconsciously start to make the move- 
ment which I do not carry out. 

It is possible for the individual to gain some idea of the kind of 
mental imagery that he possesses by looking into his own mind and 
asking himself questions like the following : — 

Call to mind a rose. Can you see its color ? Can you hear the 
rustle of the tissue paper in which it is wrapped, as in imagination 
you remove it from the box in which it has been placed ? Can you 
smell its fragrance ? Imagine taking one of the petals in your 
mouth. Can you taste it? Touch the rose. Can you feel its 
softness? Now your hand clasps the stem. Does the thorn 
prick you? Can you feel the coolness of the leaves and their 
moisture ? Imagine that you are running. What is the mental 
picture that you get? Do you get the sensations that come 
from the muscles of the legs, from the joints and the tendons? 
Do you actually seem to be out of breath with the effort ? Can 
you recall the beating of your heart, the dryness in your throat, 
and the nausea that comes from your overexertion ? 



IMAGINATION AND BEHAVIOR 233 

These and other similar questions may reveal to you the extent 
to which you may actually recall through imagination the concrete 
experiences that you are attempting to revive. While there are 
great differences among individuals, you will probably discover 
that most of your mental images are hazy and weak and that they 
resemble only in a very general way the sensations that they 
represent. 

Concrete and Symbolic Imagery. — Images are not 
only classified according to the sensations to which they 
correspond, but they are also considered as either con- 
crete or symbolic in so far as they bring to mind an actual 
object or merely the symbol of such an object. If there 
comes to mind the idea chair, I may see a mental picture 
of the chair, or I may see the word " chair " as if it were 
written, or hear the word spoken, or think of speaking 
it myself. In the first instance I have a concrete image, 
but in the three later instances symboHc images. The 
word " chair " is a symbol of the actual object. 

Again, when there comes to me the thought of infinity, 
I may have a visual image of the deep blue sky and stars 
shining forth from the depths of unending space, or I 
may see before me the mathematical character oc, that 
stands for infinity. It is clear that in the former case 
my image is concrete, in the latter symboHc. 

Many of the symbolic images that we use in our think- 
ing are " motor," that is, they are images (or vague sen- 
sations) of movements of the vocal organs, or of the 
hands, arms, and other parts of the body employed in 
making gestures. I may think " no," for example, as a 



234 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

sensation in my throat that would arise if I actually spoke 
the word; I may represent this idea as a shaking of the 
head or again as a gesture in which I wave away or repel 
something that I do not wish. It is probable that these 
motor ideas constitute an important part of our thinking. 

In early life we think much more in concrete imagery than we 
do later. This concrete imagery, too, is largely visual in its char- 
acter. The adult, however, often loses the power of bringing to 
mind images having the vivid character that they possess for 
children. A part of this loss in vividness is due to education. In 
this there is both an advantage and a disadvantage. We should 
find it quite impossible to think out an intricate problem in con- 
crete terms; we are obliged to use symbols, otherwise we could 
make no progress. To hold the child to the concrete indefinitely 
would mean that the higher mental processes would never be 
developed. On the other hand, the abihty to appreciate the various 
forms of art, to decide on definite kinds of conduct, to comprehend 
human nature, — in a word, to enter into life in all its richness and 
fullness, — is based on the power to experience in imagination the 
actual situations that the world offers. Too often the literary 
masterpiece that the child is reading is merely a jumble of words. 
He studies his lesson in history, but again the word-symbol does 
not reveal to his mind's eye the actual events ; he is instructed in 
the forms of right conduct, buftoo often the instruction becomes 
a set of mere platitudes. It has been a fault of the schools to sub- 
stitute the printed word for the vital fact for which it stands; 
this has resulted in a verbal cram that is worse than worthless; 
it is often positively injurious. The teacher should always aim 
to make a part of his instruction concrete ; he should see to it that 
the pupil never loses the power that he originally possesses of 
reviving in a vivid manner his past experiences and of recon- 
structing these through productive imagination into something 
that is actual, that is aglow with reaUty and pulsating with life. 



IMAGINATION AND BEHAVIOR 235 

Imaginal Types. — It was thought at one time by 
psychologists that different individuals possessed differ- 
ent types of imagery; that, for example, one person 
thought principally in visual terms, another in auditory, 
and another in motor. It is true that individuals of 
unusual talent have possessed remarkably vivid imagery 
in some special field. Great painters have had the abihty 
to see in their mind scenes and faces with almost the 
richness and definiteness of objective experiences ; gifted 
musicians have heard in imagination long musical com- 
positions played. It is also true that disease has some- 
times taken away from the patient his power to think 
in a certain kind of imagery. For example, he may be 
unable to recall how a word looks when printed ; he may 
no longer be able to picture the face of a friend, or to 
revive the image of the street on which he lives. 

These are, however, exceptional cases. As a rule the 
great majority of persons think in various kinds of im- 
agery on various occasions, and they are not predisposed 
to one type alone. It is quite possible through special 
training to strengthen a type that is weak. As a rule 
it is an advantage to think in as many kinds of imagery 
as possible, and the schools should employ the visual, 
auditory, and motor imagery, both concrete and sym- 
boHc, in their various forms. 

The Educational Value of Imagination. — One of the 
most important practical problems that arise in con- 
nection with imagination relates to the value and danger 



236 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

of productive imagination in the early years of childhood. 
The child is prone through imagination to create a 
world of his own, to people it with all sorts of unrealities, 
and to treat it as objective. This seems to be a defect 
at the first glance; yet productive imagination greatly 
enriches the mind of the child ; it extends his experiences 
beyond the narrow barriers of his home life. In play 
he lives through all sorts of stimulating experiences. 
He is thus provided with a world that is rich and varied, 
a world in which he as truly hves as he does in the world 
that the adult knows as the only actuahty. It is im- 
portant that the child have the advantages that this 
imaginary world is capable of giving him. On the other 
hand, however, it is dangerous to stimulate his fancies 
to the point where he cannot distinguish between what 
his imagination creates and what confronts him as hard, 
cold fact. 

In deciding how far the child may safely be allowed to 
go in his construction of an imaginary world, there is one 
safe principle on which we may base our decision. This 
is the fundamental principle of behavior. We must ask 
ourselves what are the results in the life of the child, as 
he lives it day by day. Do his imaginary companions 
help him by appealing to them to solve his little problems 
or do they keep him from the normal companionship of 
actual playmates? He is made to believe in Santa 
Claus. Does this belief give him an idea of generosity 
and kindness that actually makes him a better child. 



IMAGINATION AND BEHAVIOR 237 

or the opposite? Does the stork myth offer to him 
a satisfactory explanation of the origin of life, or should 
the child be told the simple biological facts? These are 
questions that must be solved largely in each individual 
case as it arises. It may be said in general, however, 
that those children who are unimaginative need to be 
stimulated, while those whose fancies are excessive should 
be held in check. 

In considering the extent to which the child's imagina- 
tion may be allowed to have free scope and even be 
stimulated, the following important facts should be kept 
in mind : — 

(i) The Child does not Confuse the Real with the Fancied. 
— The normal child is usually capable of distinguishing 
between fact and fancy. In his play he imagines with 
great vividness that the stick that he bestrides is a 
prancing steed, yet he does not go so far as to confuse 
it with his father's horse. Toward the perceived horse 
he acts quite differently than he does toward the im- 
agined horse. His conduct shows that he makes the 
essential distinction that is necessary to guide his be- 
havior. The girl that is plapng " house" does not 
attempt to eat the mud pies that she imagines to be Uke 
her mother's pastry. If the imagined object and the 
perceived object were treated as identical, then the 
behavior of the child would be such that he could 
not get on in the practical world to which he must con- 
form. 



238 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

(2) The Imaginary World a Privilege of Childhood. — 
The vivid character of the childish imagination tends to 
become less as he advances in years, and hence he natu- 
rally outgrows those fancies that in adult life would be 
absurd and injurious, but which in childhood are quite 
rational and helpful. His belief in supernatural beings, 
for example, is something that is on the whole helpful to 
him at an early age. He is too young to understand the 
materialistic conceptions in regard to the nature of things 
that form the basis of the adult's view of life. It does 
not harm the child to believe in fairies, gnomes, and elves. 
It would be a serious matter if the adult held to such 
conceptions. When this crude supernaturalism that the 
child naturally manifests in his earlier years tends to be 
outgrown, as it does at about the eighth or ninth year, it 
should no longer be insisted on. When the child is ca- 
pable of understanding a new order of things, he should 
be instructed in that new order according to his ability 
to comprehend it. This applies particularly to religious 
education. All honest questions of the child concerning 
the supernatural elements in the Bible story should be 
honestly and fearlessly answered. However, the adult 
view should not be forced on the immature mind of the 
boy or girl until it can be understood and properly related 
to life. 

What is true of the child in this particular is equally true of 
inferior and undeveloped races. They should not be instructed 
in those things that they cannot understand. It is necessary to 
remember always that what is the crudest superstition for an 



IMAGINATION AND BEHAVIOR 239 

advanced age or a developed civilization may be the most simple 
truth for a lower stage of intelligence and development. 

(3) The World of Fancy must he Limited. — A child 
may be encouraged in vivid fancy in one direction, and 
be held to the strictest account in another. For example, 
he may be allowed to people his imaginary world with all 
sorts of peculiar animals, but he must be held to strict 
account in regard to those that form the materials for 
his instruction in his course in nature study. There 
are many things that from the start he must know 
definitely and accurately, and here fancy can have no 
place. 

In the moral instruction of the child it is essential that his 
imagination be kept from calling up those actions that are unde- 
sirable. If he is not likely to do a certain thing, it is folly to im- 
press it on his attention and allow him to experience it in imagina- 
tion. The fact that he is told that it is not a desirable kind of 
behavior does not change the fact that he shovdd not imagine this 
kind of behavior at all. 

(4) Imaginary Achievement must not Replace Real 
Achievement. — It is important that the child should 
not believe that what he has created in fancy is already 
an accomplished fact. There are many persons who 
have never succeeded in the world's struggle for the sim- 
ple reason that they never could effectively distinguish 
between what they pictured to themselves as achieved 
and what they had actually accompHshed. There are 
not a few of life's failures who have earned millions of 
dollars " in their minds " ; who in fancy have been social 



240 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

reformers and leaders of men ; who have written books, 
invented flying machines, and become captains of in- 
dustry, through the mere thinking that these things 
were accomplished; in a word, who never could quite 
distinguish between the thought and the deed. 

Definitions and Explanation of Terms Used 

Imagination. — The consciousness of an object of 
sensory experience with the additional consciousness 
that this object is not immediately present to the senses. 
This object of imagination is termed the mental image in 
distinction from the percept. 

Productive and reproductive imagination. — The for- 
mer recombines the elements of past experiences in new 
ways, the latter reinstates them without essential change. 
My image of a centaur is productive ; my image of a 
horse that I have seen is reproductive. Productive imagi- 
nation that creates objects that are not capable of reali- 
zation in life as we know it is called fancy. The mytho- 
logical characters of the Greek religion, the imaginings of 
little children that create fairies and goblins, are examples 
of such fancies. 

Concrete and symbolic imagery. — The former repro- 
duces an object of sensory experience, the latter brings 
to mind the word or some other symbol that stands for 
the object. The mental image of a horse is concrete, 
of the word " horse " symbolic. 

Types of imagery. — There are said to be as many 



IMAGINATION AND BEHAVIOR 24 1 

types of imagery as there are different sensations. Thus 
we speak of the visual (sight), the auditory (hearing), 
the motor (movement), the dermal (touch, temperature, 
and pain), the gustatory (taste), the olfactory (smell), 
and the organic (breathing, circulation, digestion, etc.) 
types. We also speak of the concrete and symbolic types. 

Questions and Exercises 

1. Define imagination, and give examples showing the differ- 
ence between perception, false perception, and imagination. 

2. Distinguish by example between productive and reproductive 
imagination. 

3. In what way may productive imagination aid us in behavior ? 

4. Test yourself with regard to your ability to form images in 
different fields of sensation : Recall the image of the house in 
which you live ; compare the vividness of the imaged colors, and 
the accuracy of imaged forms and distances with the vividness 
and accuracy of the corresponding perceptions. Can you imagine 
a familiar tune played upon the piano ? Compare the image with 
the perception, noting the points of similarity and difference. 
Try to image the odor of coffee ; of tar ; of camphor ; of kerosene 
or gasolene. How would you compare your ability to form images 
in this field with your ability to image sights and soimds ? Try 
to image tastes, pains, and movements, and make similar com- 
parisons. 

5. Illustrate the difference between concrete and symbolic 
imagery. From the preceding exercise you have probably found 
it very difficult to image accurately or vividly smells, tastes, pains, 
movements, and perhaps sounds ; by the use of symbols, how- 
ever, you can adequately describe experiences involving these 
sense departments. Recall a disagreeable journey that you have 
taken : what details are present in actual concrete imagery, and 
what details do you reconstruct by means of symbols ? Do you 

R 



242 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

actually reexperience the feelings of fatigue ? Do you actually 
resmell the disagreeable odors? 

6. In what way should the imaginative life of children be re- 
garded from the point of view of education ? Have you known 
unfortunate results to follow from children's belief in fairies? 
In Santa Claus? In your own childhood, did you confuse the 
real with the fancied? 

7. Can you recall instances of children's doubts in regard to the 
world of myth and fancy in which they formerly may have had 
implicit faith ? When such doubts arise how should they be met ? 



CHAPTER XV 

MEMORY AND BEHAVIOR 

The Wider Use of the Term " Memory." — The 
term "memory" in its widest signification is used to 
mean the retention of any experience in such a way that 
it changes behavior. This change in behavior is taken 
to be the fundamental test as to whether an individual 
remembers or not. If the individual learns through 
experience, if he is capable of education in the widest 
sense of the word, then he remembers ; if no such learning 
is possible, then there is no evidence of memory. Mem- 
ory in this sense of the word is to be found in practically 
all animal Hfe, probably even in its simplest form, the 
amoeba. It becomes more and more evident as we go up 
the scale. 

If a tuning fork is sounded near a spider, it drops from its 
web to the ground. If this same animal is tested day after day 
with the sounding fork, it finally responds to the stimulation no 
longer, but remains undisturbed in its web. It has learned to 
ignore the fork ; in a sense it remembers its former experiences 
and acts accordingly. A more striking example of this sort of 
memory is found in the hermit crab, which usually avoids the darker 
parts of the aquarivun in which it is placed, but which can be at- 
tracted into the shadow if food is put here. In seeking the food, 
the crab will go around a wire screen placed in its way; at length 

243 



244 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

the presence of the screen alone is sufficient to cause the crab to 
move toward it and around it, although the food is no longer there. 
All vertebrates show through their behavior marked evidences 
of memory. Fishes, frogs, and turtles have been taught to find 
their way about simple mazes ; cats, dogs, and monkeys readily 
learn to open puzzle boxes. Indeed, all animals that have been 
observed in their free activities, or that have been tested experi- 
mentally, have given evidence to a greater or less degree that their 
behavior can be changed through experience. 

The Narrower Use of the Term " Memory." — As the 
term " memory " is more commonly used, it means more 
than the persistence of an experience in such a way that 
it produces a change in subsequent behavior. It gener- 
ally signifies not only the retention of this past expe- 
rience, but the definite conscious recall of this experience 
and the recognition that it does belong to the past and 
not to the present. It is clear that many of the events 
in our past which have an influence on our present be- 
havior are not remembered in this latter sense of the 
term. Often they have been entirely " forgotten " ; 
we do not recall that we have ever experienced them; 
yet they remain and make a profound difference in our 
conduct. 

This fact is strikingly illustrated in certain abnormal conditions. 
An individual who is afflicted with " hysteria " may, for example, 
continually refuse to take water when offered in a glass. There is 
no clear reason for this peculiar behavior, but it is finally learned' 
that the patient at one time in her experience was shocked and 
disgusted on discovering that she had put to her lips a glass that 
had recently been drunk out of by the house dog. She had 



MEMORY AND BEHAVIOR 245 

entirely forgotten this unpleasant event, yet quite unknown to her, 
it persisted and worked itself out in her behavior years after it 
had faded from mind. 

Recollection. — When an event is recalled as belonging 
to the past, it is said to be recollected. This recollection 
may be very definite, or quite hazy, as the case may be. 
In the latter instance there is little more than the mere 
impression of familiarity, of " having been there before," 
that accompanies mere recognition. On the other hand, 
the past experience may be recalled in great detail and 
all the circumstances connected with it brought back. 
The different degrees of recollection are often experienced 
by the individual who in later life returns to the scenes 
of his boyhood. There are many objects that he recog- 
nizes only in the sense that they do not seem entirely 
strange ; there are others that are dimly outHned through 
the haze of the years; while still others are recollected 
in minute detail. 

Recall and Recognition, —Recollection is the cul- 
mination of conscious memory. It is preceded by recall 
and recognition. Usually recall implies recognition and 
a certain degree of recollection, but not always. I may 
recall an event without recognizing that it has been a part 
of my past experience, and I may recognize something 
that I have been unable to recall. That is, I know it 
when it is presented, although I was not able to bring 
it into my consciousness unassisted. As an example of 
recall without recognition may be cited the coming to 



246 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

mind of an expression, or the executing of an act, which 
has formed part of an earlier experience, but which may 
seem quite spontaneous and original. We sometimes use 
the language of a text that we have studied in school, or 
an apt phrase that we long ago committed to memory, 
and think that we have just invented it. 

While as a rule recall is accompanied by recognition, 
recognition often takes place without recall. We are 
constantly recognizing objects and experiences as they 
are presented to us, although we could not recall them in 
any real sense. I have forgotten the name of the man I 
was introduced to yesterday, but when a friend asks me, 
" Was it Thomas? " I at once recognize that this is the 
correct name. 

Impression and Association. — In order that any act 
of conscious memory may take place, it is necessary that 
the remembered experience shall first be impressed and 
then associated with other experiences. Without im- 
pression the experience could not be retained and without 
association it could not be recalled. If we think of mem- 
ory from the standpoint of the activity of the nervous 
system, we may consider the impression as the stamping 
in of the original experience. This is supposed to produce 
some sort of a trace or change in the nervous substance, 
a memory *' scar " as it has sometimes been called, that 
tends to persist indefinitely. If the nervous substance 
were like the sands of the seashore, experience could 
easily write its characters upon its surface^ but these 



MEMORY AND BEHAVIOR 247 

would soon be obliterated ; on the other hand, if it were 
like the granite rock, experience could only with great 
difl&culty cut its markings into its unyielding substance, 
although these when once cut would remain. The nerv- 
ous system that is effective must be at the same time 
plastic and retentive. There are individual differences 
in this respect ; age and disease also tend to modify the 
character of the nervous system in such a way as to make 
it less capable of receiving and retaining impressions. 

However retentive the nervous system may be, this 
is not enough to insure a good memory. Only through 
association are experiences raised to the surface of 
consciousness. They remain hidden in the depths of 
the unconscious until they are brought up through their 
connection with something in consciousness. If we con- 
sider association in its relation to the nervous system, 
we may say that the ease with which any event is recalled 
depends upon the connection of the neurones that are 
concerned in this event with others that are related to the 
consciousness of the moment. If they are disconnected, 
if the discharge is blocked at the synapses, then memory 
is impossible. Forgetfulness in its more common forms 
may be considered as due to a temporary or permanent 
interruption of these connections. 

This point of view is seemingly substantiated by what we know 
of loss of memory through disease or accident. It is possible that 
a blow on the head may cause a person to lose all memories of the 
events immediately preceding the accident. It is to be supposed 



248 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

that the neurones involved in these events have become dis- 
associated from the rest of the nervous system rather than that 
they have been themselves injured or destroyed, and that, conse- 
quently, they have been split off in their activities. That such is 
the case is indicated by the fact that these lost memories may be 
subsequently restored. We notice a similar condition when we 
are very tired. We find it then extremely difficult to recall the 
name of a friend, or an event, although we have no difficulty 
in bringing it back to consciousness the next morning. The 
night's rest has restored the nervous sytem, and the "blocking" 
disappears. 

It was long ago pointed out by James that Kttle can 
be done to improve one's retentivity, since this seems to 
be a matter of the nervous substance as such and to be 
beyond the control of educative influences. On the 
other hand, there are various means of impressing the 
event or fact to be remembered upon the mind, and also 
of forming the proper associations, in order to make it 
possible to recall the fact or event when desired. 

A fact may be impressed by frequent repetition and by making 
it so vivid as to arouse the interest and secure the attention. 
Going over the same thing again and again is a favorite device 
that, despite criticism from some quarters, still forms one of the 
chief methods of instruction in the schools. In recent years the 
factor of vividness in presentation has been given an emphasis 
that it long had deserved, but which it had not always been 
accorded. As we have said on a previous page, mere repetition 
is of Uttle advantage if that which is repeated is not attended to. 
The forming of proper associations is one of the most important 
problems that faces the teacher. The materials must be so or- 
ganized that they may be easily recalled when they are needed. 
Obviously it would be a waste of time to learn the important dates 



MEMORY AND BEHAVIOR 249 

in history if they were not related in such a way that they could 
be used in their proper connections. This matter will be discussed 
more fully in the next chapter. 

The Tests of Memory, (a) The Method of Retained 
Members. — There are various tests of memory. The 
common test and one almost exclusively used in the 
schools is that of ability to recall the parts of what has 
already been learned. This recall may be a verbatim 
reinstatement, as in the case of rote memory, or it may be 
recall in terms of the sense or meaning of what has been 
learned. The test of my memory for a poem that I have 
studied is how much of it I can repeat word for word, 
but the test of my memory of a history lesson is how 
many of the important ideas I can reproduce. To repeat 
the language of the text may be no indication that I 
really know what I have been studying. Obviously, 
as the person becomes more mature, mere rote memory 
for most things is less important than memory for the 
sense or significance of what he has studied. 

ib) The Saving Method. — I may test my memory for 
a poem that I learned to the point where I could repeat it 
word for word, not by trying to reprodute it, but by seeing 
how long it takes me to learn it again. To-day I may not 
recall a word of it, although a week ago I thought I had 
mastered it. But when I relearn it, I fiiid that it takes me 
just half as long to commit as it did on the first occasion. 
Hence I may say in a very real sense that I have but half 
forgotten it. It is true that a great many things that we 



250 HUAIAN BEHAVIOR 

have learned in the years gone by now seem entirely 
vanished from our minds. That they are not completely 
lost, the test of relearning will prove. 

(c) The Method of Right Associates. — As we have 
just pointed out, we recall experiences through their 
association with others. Hence a valid test for mem- 
ory is to find out on presenting one of the facts 
associated with another whether the second can be 
recalled. For example, a pupil is learning a German- 
English vocabulary. His memory may be tested by 
asking him to repeat it word for word, or by finding how 
long it will take him to relearn it when it is partly for- 
gotten, or by presenting the English words one by one 
and asking him to give their foreign equivalents. 

{d) The Method of Recognition. — Another test for 
memory consists in recognizing the object to be remem- 
bered when it is presented. The boy who is sent into the 
workshop knows his tools if he can use them ; the pupil 
remembers his language lesson if he recognizes the mean- 
ing of words when he meets them. At one time it was 
beUeved that the child had really mastered his studies 
when he was capable of giving a set of definitions and 
rules. The real test, however, is not that he remembers 
a collection of words ingeniously framed by an adult, but 
that he knows how to use in a concrete instance the 
principles hidden behind these definitions ; in other 
words, that he recognizes in the particular example 
before him something that he has previously studied. 



MEMORY AND BEHAVIOR 25 1 

It was not so long ago that the idea prevailed that there was 
virtue in memorizing such unintelligible statements as the follow- 
ing: "An abstract noun is the name of a quality, action, or con- 
dition of a person or a thing, apart from the person or thing itself." 
The teacher felt that the pupil had mastered fractions when he 
knew all of the rules that the arithmetic contained in regard to this 
intricate subject, or that he had an actual knowledge of geography 
if he could bound all of the states in the Union, give their capitals, 
and recite their chief products. To-day it is generally realized 
that, while this verbal cram may be valuable if it has been preceded 
by an intelligent study of meanings, it is worthless when used alone. 
A verbatim test of memory is not the real test of knowledge. 
More and more the fundamental importance of recognition is 
being appreciated, and recognition means in the last analysis merely 
the knowledge of what to do, of how to behave, in regard to any 
object or situation when it is presented. Other tests for memory 
that are valuable are after all valuable only in so far as they assume 
that when the individual has recalled something, he then recog- 
nizes it ; is able to do something with the material thus recalled. 

(e) The Method of Reconstruction. — Closely associated 
with recall as a test for memory is reconstruction. This 
latter test consists in putting into its original arrange- 
ment materials that have been presented in a certain 
order and then rearranged. This memory for order and 
arrangement is often more important than the memory 
for the objects to be arranged. 

This is illustrated in the work of the school when, for example, 
the pupil is given an outline map and is told to put in their proper 
places cities, mountains, rivers, etc., that have previously been 
studied in a complete map. Memory for order is also important 
in such a subject as history. The pupil may know the names of 
all of the presidents of the United States, but it may be equally 



252 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

important to know the order of the separate administrations. 
Indeed for certain purposes, he may be given the names and then 
asked to arrange them properly. 

Retentiveness. — It is to be kept in mind that the 
measure of memory, tested by any of the methods above 
discussed, is not only what is the present efficiency of 
the memory, but also how long this efficiency will con- 
tinue. I may, for example, be able to repeat a poem by 
heart to-day, but do I know it well enough to recite it 
without mistake a month hence ? I may have mastered 
a new stroke in tennis, but if I do not play again for a 
week, shall I be able to execute it then? Quite ob- 
viously, if I have just learned the poem so that I can 
repeat it, much will be gone at the end of the month ; if 
I have to-day acquired for the first time the new stroke, 
I may be quite unable to make it next week. In other 
words the test for permanent memory is not only what I 
know now, but also how long I have known it. If I learned 
a poem a year ago and can repeat it to-day without an 
error, I shall probably be able to repeat it correctly a 
month hence. If I mastered the stroke in tennis last 
season and can now execute it perfectly, the probabihty 
is that I shall never forget it. 

It has long been recognized that cramming is ordinarily a bad 
method of study. The pupil may, in a brief space of time, acquire 
a superficial mastery of subject matter. On examination day he 
may seem to know as much about the subject as another pupil 
who has mastered his lessons thoroughly and faithfully day by 
day. As an actual fact his "knowledge" is not permanent, and 



MEMORY AND BEHAVIOR 253 

the examination test is therefore a false one. For this reason it 
is wise to give tests at times when pupils are not expecting them. 
If they know that this is the practice of the teacher, they are more 
likely to have their knowledge in a form in which they are prepared 
to give it forth. 

The Laws of Forgetting, — To understand the facts 
of memory it is equally essential to understand the facts 
of forgetting. It has been definitely determined that we 
forget what we have learned very rapidly at first and then 
much more slowly. If we are studying something in 
which there is little meaning, in which we rely on im- 
pression very largely and on association but slightly, 
a large amount of the material learned will have faded 
from our minds in the first few hours after we have 
stopped the learning. What remains after tliis leaves 
us much more slowly. In memorizing something that 
has meaning, we find that we forget it less rapidly, al- 
though the fact still remains that the rate of forgetting 
is more rapid at first than it is later on. It has been 
found that if the subject studied is to be remembered 
for any length of time without a large loss in the first 
few hours, it is necessary to study it beyoTid the point of 
merely mastering it. In other words, if the person wishes 
to retain what he is learning, he must go over it again 
and again, even after he is convinced that he has memo- 
rized it. 

Faulty Observation Leads to Defective Memory, — 
Much of the supposed inability to remember is really 



254 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

lack of original observation of that to be remembered. 
It is therefore a fault of attention, and not an actual 
memory defect. Improving one's methods of observa- 
tion is therefore one of the most important factors in se- 
curing a " good memory.^' This fact may be strikingly 
illustrated by showing a person a colored picture repre- 
senting some simple scene, asking him to look at it for 
a brief period, perhaps a minute, and then later asking 
him to describe the picture. It will be found that cer- 
tain of the details — some of these seemingly the most 
obvious — are passed over entirely, simply because of 
the fact that he paid no attention to them when the 
picture was before him. 

Distortion and Confusion in Memory. — One of the 
greatest dangers in a poor memory is not the simple 
forgetting of certain details of an experience, but the 
falsification of these details. In other words the person 
believes that he remembers something that either did 
not take place, or occurred quite otherwise than in 
the way in which he remembers it. There are many 
ways in which this falsification may arise. One of these 
is by confusing the details of one experience with those of 
a similar experience. I saw a friend a week ago at the 
seaside. At that time he showed me a business letter 
that interested me. The next day I visited him in his 
office in the city. Some time later I " remember " 
that he showed me the business letter at his office. 

A similar error in memory involves a confusion of vari- 



MEMORY AND BEHAVIOR 255 

ous parts of the same experience. I am called to the 
court to tell of a quarrel that I witnessed on the streets 
some months ago. I testify in good faith that one of 
those engaged in the disturbance called another harsh 
names. In reality it was a third person who was prin- 
cipally responsible. 

It often happens that a person does not actually re- 
member certain details of an experience and quite un- 
consciously fills these in from what he supposes would 
generally be true. In other words he unwittingly makes 
the experience that he is recalling like other experiences 
of a similar nature. In the colored picture that he ob- 
serves there is, for example, a cradle of a brilliant blue- 
green color. He does not look at it carefully, but when 
later asked the color, he is absolutely sure that it is a 
brownish red, because most of the cradles that he has seen 
are of that color. 

One of the common sources of mistakes in memory 
arises through talking about an event that you have 
witnessed, or through reading about it. What others 
say to you, or what you see in the papers, finally becomes 
confused with your own experience. There are many 
things in our past fives that we cannot tell whether we 
have actually observed or whether we have been told 
about them. When we talk with others, they not only 
tell us definite things, but they also suggest incidents 
that we afterward develop until they seem to have been 
actual experiences. For these reasons it is extremely 



256 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

difficult to get reliable witnesses to an occurrence that 
has excited great public interest. These witnesses have 
talked the matter over so many times with the officers 
of the law, the lawyers, the newspaper reporters, and 
their friends that the occurrences that they originally 
witnessed are mingled with a mass of " hearsay " 
details that they are not able to distinguish from their 
own experiences. 

Suggestion as a Factor in Distorting Memory. — If a 
person is questioned in regard to an experience, he is 
more likely to falsify some of its details than if he is 
allowed to give his own version of it unassisted. If the 
questioner so puts his query as to suggest a certain an- 
swer, the person examined has a tendency to reply with 
the answer sought. For example, the police detective 
may say to the suspect whom he is grilling, " Did you 
not'. have a quarrel with the murdered man? " If he 
repeats this question time and time again, the prisoner 
may answer, " Yes," through the force of the suggestion, 
although no quarrel has actual^ taken place. Here 
lies one of the great objections to the so-called " third 
degree " methods. Questions that are much more 
mildly suggestive than the example given above act in 
very subtle ways to lead the memory into error, partic- 
ularly in the case of children, who tend to answer all 
questions in the way in which they think the questioner 
wishes them to answer. 

Factors Conditioning Accurate Memory. — The accu- 



MEMORY AND BEHAVIOR 257 

racy of memory is greater for certain details of an experi^ 
ence than it is for others. Actions, especially those of 
persons, are likely to be observed carefully and remem- 
bered with approximate exactness. Objects at rest, 
and their relations in space, are less Hkely to be observed, 
but when attended to, are kept in mind well. On the 
other hand, the qualities of things, particularly their 
color, seem to be but poorly observed and remembered. 
Very Httle dependence can be placed on a person's mem- 
ory for color. 

The accuracy of memory depends much on the per- 
son's disposition. Some individuals have a tendency 
to elaborate their memories until what they " recall " 
resembles but Httle the original occurrence. There are 
many children and not a few adults that like to " show 
off " and tell " big stories," which at first they may recog- 
nize as inaccurate, but which after several repetitions 
they actually believe themselves. 

Accuracy also depends on age. In spite of the common 
belief that children have exceptionally good m^emories, it 
has been clearly shown that they remember less and are 
more likely to give a false report of what they do recall 
than adults. Memory seems to be more accurate and 
extensive from the time of maturity on to old age, when 
it often rapidly declines. 

We are more hkely to remember pleasant than un- 
pleasant experiences. Except under unusual conditions, 
we do not dwell on the sorrows of the past. This is not 



258 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

because we have not had them impressed originally 
with great force. Indeed, it is a rule that we attend more 
to the unpleasant than the pleasant. Our failure to 
remember them is due to the fact that we refuse to associ- 
ate and recall these unpleasant experiences. It is, in- 
deed, fortunate for us that we can thus ignore the 
unpleasant and disagreeable features of our experience 
when they can no longer be of value in directing our 
behavior. 

The Function of Forgetting. — While the falsifica- 
tion of memory is always undesirable, forgetting, in many 
instances, serves a very useful purpose. We cannot and 
should not remember every detail of an occurrence. 
The recall of every element of an experience is seldom 
required. We cannot keep our minds burdened with 
the unessentials. It is as necessary to know what to forget 
as what to remember. Obviously we should forget only 
those things that are not important for the purpose we 
have in mind, and we should remember the important 
details. This will be discussed more at length in the 
following chapter. 

The Improvement of Memory. — The question of 
the improvement of memory is an important one. In 
the first place it should be remembered that an 
" all around " memory training is impossible. It has 
been well said that we do not have " memory," but 
" memories " ; that is, we remember some things 
well and others badly. Indeed, the very fact that my 



MEMORY AND BEHAVIOR 259 

mind is impressed with certain details may mean that 
I do not attend to others, and hence they are not Hkely 
to be stamped on my mind so that they can later be re- 
called. If I am interested in learning certain formulae 
in mathematics, I may entirely forget the engagement 
that I made with a friend. Usually, persons who are 
" forgetful " forget certain things only and remember 
others very well. We call them forgetful simply be- 
cause they do not keep in mind those matters that we 
consider important. Memory cannot then he strengthened 
as we would strengthen a muscle, merely by exercising it in 
committing any sort of material. If I exercise it by learn- 
ing poetry and improve it in that direction, this does' 
not of necessity mean that my memory has been strength- 
ened for learning the moves in chess. 

The best way to improve the memory is to improve our 
methods of memorizing. In the first place, we must 
train ourselves to more accurate observation of what 
we wish to recall. We must learn the value of hold- 
ing our attention to what we are memorizing. In the 
second place, we must accustom ourselves to form 
helpful associations, so that recall will become easier. 
Finally, there are certain technical methods of memoriz- 
ing that are superior to others. These will be discussed 
in Chapter XVII. 



26o HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

Definitions and Explanation of Terms Used 

Memory. — In the most fundamental sense of the 
term, memory signifies the retention of any experience 
in such a way that it modifies subsequent behavior ; 
in the narrower and more common use of the term, it 
signifies the conscious recall of any fact or event, with 
the added consciousness that this fact or event belongs 
to our personal experience. 

Retention. — The holding of an impression so that it 
may subsequently be recalled. 

Recall. — The revival in consciousness of a past 
experience. 

Recognition. — This term signifies that the present 
fact or event is known ; that is, it does not seem strange ; 
we know how to behave in relation to it; it is accom- 
panied by a " feeling of familiarity." 

Recollection. — The fact or event that I recognize 
is revived in recollection with the circumstances that 
originally accompanied it. I not only recognize the 
boy that I see on the street to-day, but I recall in greater 
or less detail the events connected with my meeting him 
on a previous occasion. I may recall an event and not 
recognize it as a part of my past experience. I may not 
be able to recall an event that I recognize as familiar 
when it is again presented. I may both recall and recog- 
nize without recollecting. Recollection always impHes 
recognition, but recognition may not develop into recol- 
lection. 



MEMORY AND BEHAVIOR 26 1 

Impression. — Tliis term signiiies the " stamping 
in " of the original experience in such a way that it 
persists for an appreciable period of time. 

Association. — This term signifies the connection 
of the impressed experiences with other experiences in 
such a way that one tends to recall the other. 

Rote memory. — This term signifies " learning by 
heart," or " word for word." 

Methods of testing memory. — The most common 
method is to find out how much of that which has been 
once learned can be reproduced. This is technically 
termed the " Method of Retained Members." A second 
method is to find out how long it will take to relearn 
something that has once been learned and later in part 
or wholly '' forgotten," The amount of time saved in 
the relearning over the first learning indicates the 
amount remembered. This is technically known as 
the " Saving Method." If I save half the time in the 
relearning, then my memory at the beginning of the re- 
learning was just fifty per cent of what it was originally, 
A third method of testing memory is termed the " Method 
of Right Associates." In this test one of the facts or 
events associated with a second fact or event is presented, 
and the test is, Can the person recall this associated 
fact or event? A fourth test is termed the " Method 
of Recognition." When an object is presented, my 
memory is measured by the amount of famiharity that 
this object has for me. Do I know what the object is 



262 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

when I see it ; am I able to use it ; do I know how to 
behave in relation to it ? The fifth test is the " Method 
of Reconstruction." Can the person who is thus tested 
put back into the original order parts that are no longer 
in this order? 

Rate of forgetting. — This signifies the rapidity with 
which we lose from memory that which we have learned. 
The rate is very rapid during the first few hours ; then 
it becomes less and less rapid. 

Falsification of memory. — We often think that we 
remember facts and events that do not actually belong 
to the experience that we recollect. Falsification often 
arises because we confuse the parts of two separate ex- 
periences ; again it is due to the tendency to think that 
what ordinarily happens has happened on the occasion 
that we are now recalHng, although in this particular 
instance the customary did not take place. Another 
source of falsification is " suggestion." Some one im- 
pHes by a question or a statement that the facts are thus 
and so, and we then tend to take up this impHcation 
and consider it as true. Hearsay is also a common source 
of falsification. We confuse what we are told, or what 
we read about, with what we have actually experienced. 
The tendency to tell " big stories," to add to and em- 
bellish what we have witnessed, is also a common source 
of falsification. Finally, inaccurate observation as well 
as the fading of the original impression makes all of these 
various errors of memory possible. 



MEMORY AND BEHAVIOR 263 

Questions and Exercises 

I . Define memory as the term is used in the narrower psycho- 
logical sense. Compare memory with perception, false percep- 
tion, and imagination, giving examples. 

2. Distinguish between recognition and recollection. 

3. Distinguish between impression and association. 

4. Describe three important methods of testing memory, and 
show how each may be employed in the work of teaching. 

^ 5. What are some of the dangers of the "cramming" method of 
learning? Under what conditions may "cramming" be an effec- 
tive method of learning ? 

6. Why is it essential to learn beyond the point where the mate- 
rial may be recalled without error? 

7. What factors are likely to cause a distortion of memory, and 
how may this distortion be avoided? 

8. Secure a colored picture of fair size (for example, fifteen by 
twelve inches). This should depict some simple scene and contain 
a reasonable number of details (too many will cause confusion). 
Show this picture to adults and children, allowing them to observe 
it for one minute. First ask the observer to describe what he has 
seen; then ask questions, some of them misleading. Note the 
source and character of the errors. 



CHAPTER XVI 
ASSOCIATION .^D BEHAVIOR 

In the preceding chapter the importance of associa- 
tion in the recall of an experience was emphasized. 
The present chapter will consider in detail the nature 
of association and the manner in which it operates. 

" Simultaneous " and " Successive " Association. — 
Psychologists generally divide associations into two 
classes, and to these they give the names respectively 
of simultaneous and successive associations. In simulta- 
neous associations the various elements do not follow one 
another ; there is no conscious lapse of time between the 
appearance of the first element and the others. All seem 
to spring up in consciousness at once. I hear the " honk " 
of an automobile horn, and instantly there comes to my 
mind a picture of the machine itself with its driver and 
occupants. 

When we speak of associations, however, we more 
often think of successive associations in which the ele- 
ments associated stand out clear and distinct in our con- 
sciousness. It is these successive associations that we 
can study in their formation, since there are definite stages 
in the apperance of the various ideas that thus group 
themselves together. Further, we can control in some 

264 I 



ASSOCIATION AND BEHAVIOR 265 

measure the manner in which they are formed and thus 
control the memory processes which depend on these 
associations. 

The Primary Laws of Association. — The first " laws 
of association " go back many centuries to the Greek 
philosopher and scientist Aristotle, who pointed out 
that experiences were associated either by contiguity 
in space or in time, or by similarity (including contrast) . 
These are seemingly very simple in their nature. Two 
objects are experienced together, or one event follows 
closely on another. When I recall the first object, or 
event, I tend to recall the second. These two instances 
illustrate the principle of contiguity. I hear the deep 
note of the whistle on the steamship that is making out 
to sea, and I at once think of a cry of distress because of 
the similarity of the sound. The word "black" brings 
to my mind " white," because of the contrast involved. 

These so-called laws of association, however, are of 
no great value. They simply tell me how certain objects 
are arranged through association in my consciousness, 
but they give very httle insight into the actual means 
by which associations may be formed and controlled. 

An attempt has been made to explain the formation of asso- 
ciations through contiguity by picturing what happens in the 
nervous system when various neurones are stimulated together 
or in immediate succession. It is held that under such circum- 
stances these neurones tend to become linked together at their 
synapses in such a way that the stimulation of the first tends in the 
future to cause the stimulation of the second. For example, the 



266 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

neurones involved when I see the flagman at the railroad crossing 
associate themselves with the neurones involved when I see the 
tracks. They act either together or in immediate succession 
(contiguity either in space or in time), and hence they become 
connected in such a way that when the "flagman" neurones are 
stimvdated (either when I see or think of the flagman) then the 
"track" neurones are set into activity, and there comes to my mind 
the image of the tracks, although they are not actually present 
to my senses. This explanation, whether it is correct or not, is of 
no practical significance. I can in no way directly control the 
activity of my neurones, and hence am unable to control my asso- 
ciations through a knowledge of how the neurones may act. 
Further than this, while the physiological explanation above dis- 
cussed may serve to explain associations by contiguity, it is power- 
less to explain associations by similarity or contrast. We must 
seek for a more fundamental law of association than those already 
discussed, if we are to get at a principle that will be of use in under- 
standing and directing our associative processes. 

The fundamental principle of association appears 
when we ask ourselves the conditions under which we 
judge an object to be similar to another or to contrast 
with it. We may think that this judgment is made 
because of the essential likeness of certain experiences 
and unlikeness of others, a likeness that is inherent in 
these experiences themselves and which any one may find 
to exist in them. This is not so, however. The like- 
ness or the difference is something that / read into these 
experiences, and whether I find Hkeness or difference, 
whether this likeness or this difference is in certain as- 
pects of the experience or in others, depends upon the 
point of view, the idea that I have in my mind when I 



ASSOCIATION AND BEHAVIOR 267 

make such comparisons. This point of view may be a 
definitely conscious matter, or it may be obscure and 
difficult to recognize, but in any case when I associate 
experiences according to this law of similarity and con- 
trast, I do so because of the mental attitude, either clearly 
conscious or merely present as a vague tendency, that 
turns my thoughts in one direction rather than in another. 

Why is it, for example, that in the gathering twilight of the 
November evening, as I see the full moon just appearing above the 
horizon, I am reminded of a football ? Surely there is little like- 
ness between the two objects that would impress the ordinary 
observer. The reason, however, is quite apparent. I am return- 
ing from a football game, and my mind is full of the contest. My 
thoughts are on football ; my mind is, for the time being, centered 
in the sport. So the round moon suggests a round football. On 
another occasion I again see the full moon, and this time it brings 
to mind the glowing hghts at the entrance of the theater that I 
visited recently. Why do I find this new similarity? Merely 
because I am thinking of the play that I have witnessed and I have 
the "theater attitude." 

Mental Attitude or " Purpose " Determines Associa- 
tions. — Why do I sometimes find resemblances between 
objects and again differences? This is also a matter of 
what is in my mind. If I am looking for differences, 
black will always suggest white, but if I am making com- 
parisons based on similarity, black will call up such a 
thought as velvet, night, coal, and so on. When these 
attitudes are very definite in my consciousness, they may 
be termed purpose, and we may also think of the more 
obscure " points of view " as indefinite and partly con- 



268 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

scious purposes. It is what I am aiming at, either clearly 
or indefinitely, that decides how my associations of 
similarity and difference shall be formed. 

I may be aiming to prove that political upheavals are dangerous, 
and I will then with definitely conscious intent look about for his- 
torical examples to prove my contention. That is why I see a 
similarity between present-day conditions and those that preceded 
the French Revolution. Here my associations follow a very defi- 
nite purpose. Again, I may be a prejudiced partisan, and although 
I am not aware of it, my "prejudice" (really a scarcely recognized 
purpose) leads me to discover in the candidate of my particular 
faction resemblances to Abraham Lincoln, and in his opponent for 
office a Ukeness to Benedict Arnold. I will not admit to myself 
that I am thus prejudiced, but as a matter of fact it is my "point 
of view" that discovers these likenesses and differences. In 
reality, neither man is a hero nor a villain. 

It is a fact which reveals itself on careful analysis that 
not only the associations of similarity and contrast are 
formed under the direction of purpose, but those of con- 
tiguity as well. It is quite clear that many of the objects 
that are brought together in space and in time are not 
associated. This is partly to be explained by the fact 
that all are not equally well impressed on my atten- 
tion, and I do not recall one member of a pair when the 
other is presented because of the fact that the former 
was never really stamped on my mind. There are, how- 
ever, many instances when this lack of recall is not due 
to original lack of observation, but rather to the fact 
that the , two experiences do not naturally belong to- 
gether in terms of my mental attitude. 



ASSOCIATION AND BEHAVIOR 269 

As an example of this the following illustration may serve : 
I sometimes see the flagman at the crossing, but I also often 
see him in another part of the town of an evening when I am return- 
ing from my ofhce. He has done his day's work, and in the warm 
weather is generally sitting on his front porch as I pass by his 
home. According to the law of contiguity, when I think of the 
flagman I can equally well recall the railroad crossing or his home. 
As a matter of fact, to-day I associate him with the crossing, for 
as I call him to mind I am thinking also of a shipment of machinery 
that I am to send to a customer in a distant city. My mind is on 
the railroad, and I quite naturally think of the flagman in his 
capacity as an employee of the railroad. I may say that the pur- 
pose of my entire thought at this time is connected with freight 
facilities. When I recall the flagman and think of his home, I 
am considering how his ward will vote at the coming city elections, 
and my purpose (or attitude) is quite different from what it was 
when I was thinking about shipping a carload of machinery. In 
this second instance I call to mind the flagman as a citizen, and I 
therefore recall his home rather than the railroad crossing. 

So it is with all of our conscious associative processes that are 
at all elaborate. The way in which they are linked together is 
finally decided, not by a mere objective circumstance, but by the 
trend of our minds at the time at which they are recalled. It is 
only under conditions of the most trivial and disorganized thinking 
that our associations are dependent on external circumstances to 
decide in which way they shall be formed. 

Secondary Laws of Association. — Beside the laws 
of association discussed above, several others have been 
formulated that sometimes have been described as the 
secondary laws of association. Some of these are not so 
much laws of association as they are laws of impression. 
Among these the laws of frequency and of vividness have 
been briefly discussed in the preceding chapter. The 



270 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

former refers to the simple fact that the more often 
experiences are presented together, the more likely they 
are to be recalled together. This is due to the circum- 
stance that they have become impressed on conscious- 
ness through repetition. This form of association may 
further be explained from the standpoint of the nervous 
system by supposing that as experiences are repeated 
again and again the connections between the neurones 
involved become more and more firmly established. 

I tend to recall vivid experiences, such as the football 
rush that I took part in as a freshman, the day on which 
I received promotion in the office where I was working, 
and so on. Vivid experiences are held in mind in part 
because the vividness stamps them in and in part be- 
cause they are connected with ideas and purposes that 
give them interest and significance. Other secondary 
laws of association are the laws of primacy and recency. 

The principle of primacy asserts that those experiences 
that come first in a series of related experiences are more 
likely to be recalled than those that come later. I re- 
member the first day of my visit at the home of my friend 
better than those that followed. I shall never forget 
the port at which I landed on my first visit to Europe, 
although many of the other cities that I visited later 
are now very indistinct in my memory. 

So it is with recent events. The last class that I at- 
tended as a senior in college has left an impression on my 
mind that has never faded out. I can remember no 



ASSOCIATION AND BEHAVIOR 27 1 

other so distinctly ; indeed for most of them I have no 
memory at all. Primacy and recency are two laws that 
in the last analysis are special forms of vividness. The 
first and last things stand out because they are empha- 
sized by the position in which they are placed, and 
because they thus arouse the attention and become 
vivid. 

These four laws, then, are really reduced to two, — 
the law of frequency, or repetition, and the law of vivid- 
ness, or interest. These laws relate both to impression 
and to association. In so far as they concern associa- 
tion, however, they will be found to be merely varia- 
tions of the law of purpose, or attitude. 

Mental Attitude or " Purpose " Explains Secondary 
Laws. — Things that are often repeated are thereby 
stamped more and more upon consciousness. That 
can be readily seen. But why are they recalled together ? 
Largely because they fit together in accordance with 
the general trend of my thinking. 

In the city in which I live, the fire gong rings the "no-school 
signal" on stormy days ; invariably the no-school signal is accom- 
panied by a holiday for the children. These two events always go 
together, and the children and the teachers learn to associate them, 
so that when the signal is heard, it at once connects itself with a 
holiday. The children are "thinking school" and the teachers 
are "thinking school." School forms the main purpose of their 
thought and actions, — they are in the "school" attitude. I 
know equally well that the signal means no school, but I seldom 
associate the fire gong with the school, because I am not thinking 
of school, I am thinking of business. 



272 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

In the early hours of night the crescent moon, except on rare 
occasions, is seen in the western sky. These two conditions 
go together and have been repeated time after time. That prob- 
ably the majority of people do not join them together was shown 
to me on one occasion by the fact that when the moon was partly 
ecUpsed at an early hour of night and appeared as a crescent in the 
eastern sky, no one to whom I spoke about the event the next morn- 
ing had noticed anything unusual. They were not aware the 
moon was eclipsed; they thought merely that it was the "new" 
moon. They must have observed the relation between the new 
moon and the western sky time and time again, but they were not 
thinking about astronomical facts and so this relationship failed 
to associate itself in their minds. 

The principle of vividness is in a large measure to 
be explained as due to the predominating purpose, trend, 
or attitude of the mind. Vividness is not necessarily 
something external. Bright lights, loud noises, sharp 
pains, are more likely to attract attention than weak sen- 
sations of the same character. Yet, to Paul Revere, 
waiting to carry his message of the approach of the Brit- 
ish soldiers, the dim glow of the lanterns from the belfry 
across the river was more vivid than the lightning's 
flash would have been. The lantern signal signified 
something, — it fitted into the purpose that brought 
him to the shore on that eventful evening; his mind 
was bent on giving the alarm, and with this the signal 
accorded. 

The shipwrecked sailor hears above the roar of the waves, as 
they surge around the fated ship, the faint cry of the rescuers on 
the beach, for this cry fits into his thoughts ; it means chance of 



ASSOCIATION AND BEHAVIOR 273 

rescue and hope of life. The victim of the accident, lying on his 
cot in the hospital, is conscious of the sharp pain in his lacerated 
hand, but in the focus of his attention is the dull ache that he feels 
in his side. The latter is more vivid, for it means more in terms 
of his injury and his chances of recovery, and his "mind is on" 
this. 

Emotional Congruity and Association. — There is 
still another so-called law of association that has been 
termed by James congruity of ■ emotional tone. This 
signifies that those objects and events are associated 
that agree with the prevailing mood of the individual 
who makes the associations. If I am sorrowful, then 
I think of winter landscapes, barren deserts, lost friends, 
and so on. If I am glad, I think of June days, bountiful 
harvests, and merry companions. The person who is 
of a gloomy disposition is always recalUng his misfor- 
tunes, but his optimistic friend remembers only the cheer- 
ful experiences. The congruity of emotional tone is 
much the same in our affective life as are purpose, trend, 
meaning, and attitude in our intellectual life. Our 
thought processes may be controlled either by the pur- 
pose that we set before ourselves, or by the tastes, feel- 
ings, and prejudices that sway us. 

The various conditions of association as described above are 
often strikingly illustrated by the associations formed by the insane 
and mentally defective. Certain patients are unable to associate 
ordinary things and events because the fundamental ability to 
receive and hold impressions has been lost. An alcoholic patient, 
for example, can remember nothing about the events of the day, 
simply because they have never been stamped upon his conscious- 



274 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

ness. Another person is quite capable of receiving and holding 
impressions, but he cannot bring these together in a well-ordered 
whole. We say that he does not think clearly, simply because 
there is no controlling purpose, no fundamental feeling, that or- 
ganizes his fleeting thoughts. He is incapable of holding himself 
down to any one line of association. He chatters on in a random 
fashion, with his mind now on one thing, now on another. Some 
one says "day" in his hearing, and his thoughts go on as follows : 
"Night ; yes it was a dark night. Don't you like the night better 
than the day ? The day is a 'daisy.' Did you ever pick butter- 
cups ? Oh, the butter here is bad ; I am going to complain to 

Dr. M when I see him." (An attendant rattles his keys.) 

"What a bunch of keys. If I had them I would unlock every 
door in this ward. Then the patients would get out. But we 
must have patience, for it is a virtue, you know." So the un- 
fortunate individual wanders on, each succeeding idea deter- 
mined by something quite trivial, such as the sound of the 
preceding word or some external happening that turns the atten- 
tion in its direction. 

In contrast to this there is another patient who has one control- 
ling thought, a "fixed idea," as it is sometimes termed. All his 
associations group themselves around this idea. He caimot get 
away from it. It forms the main purpose of his insane conscious- 
ness. Perhaps he believes that some one is trying to annoy him. 
Every thought centers around this delusion ; every event suggests 
it to him. 

A third person is afraid of everything. His mood is one of con- 
stant terror. There is no definite idea that dorhinates his con- 
sciousness in this instance, but his emotional attitude leads to all 
sorts of associations in terms of this mood. He fears, simply 
because he is in a fearful state, not because he has anything specific 
to fear. 

We see all these types of association illustrated in 
normal individuals in a less intensive form. 



ASSOCIATION AND BEHAVIOR 275 

Certain persons are spoken of as "thick." Nothing makes an 
impression on them ; they seem to observe but Httle, and conse- 
quently to recall but little. They are never on the alert, never 
keen-witted. There are others who think in a random fashion. 
Their thoughts go helter-skelter, and they seem to have little 
purpose in their thinking. They just "ramble on and get no- 
where." Then there are others who get a "notion into their heads 
and simply can't get it out." They do not progress mentally, 
because their thinking always revolves around one idea. They 
are radical in thought; they are "cranks" in behavior. Finally, 
there are those who let their emotions unduly control their asso- 
ciations. The person who is of a sullen mood is always turning 
his attention to those experiences that arouse his anger ; the 
person that is over sympathetic lets his mind run along sentimental 
channels. An exaggeration, an intensification, of any of these 
types wovdd carry the individual over into the "insane" class. 

Summary. — There are, then, three ways in which 
our associative processes may be formed and controlled. 
In the first place we must so fix the various facts and 
events to be associated that they shall have a relative 
permanency. This can be done by making these facts 
and events vivid, and by repetition. Here we have the 
two fundamental principles of drill and interest. Arouse 
interest, secure attention, repeat. This has already been 
discussed in the chapter on Habit. 

The second and most important method of establishing 
associations is by the control of the thought through 
some idea or purpose that leads it in a definite direction. 
Here we have the principle of organization that is so 
important in all learning. The associations must not be 
left to the mercy of trivial and external circumstances ; 



276 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

they must be controlled from within by some idea. This 
idea in a sense selects the others that are to keep it com- 
pany. It must be remembered that such ideas are in 
the direction of the interests of the individual, and they 
form the parts of consciousness that are attentive; 
hence, as we have already said, vividness itself means 
purpose, and is to be considered not only as a means for 
fixing the facts to be associated, but also of joining them 
together and directing the course that they shall take. 
So the second rule for association will read, — Organize 
the material to be associated according to your ideal interests. 
By the term " ideal " is signified that the interests which 
control your associations shall stand out before you 
as ends to be secured, as purposes to be realized, as 
goals to be attained. The interests should not be immedi- 
ate and trivial, such as distract the attention of the dog 
that is trying to open a puzzle box, or that lead the feeble- 
minded and insane to ramble on with no consecutive 
ideas to guide their associations. 

The third manner in which the associative processes 
may be cpntrolled is through the feeUngs as they work 
themselves out in some dominant mental attitude of the 
individual. These attitudes may be thought of as very 
dimly recognized ideas or purposes that are rich in feeling. 
They are really prejudices of the afective rather than of the 
intellectual type. We meet them on all sides. They 
decide how a person thinks and acts in poKtics, in rehgion, 
and in his more general social relationships. They are 



ASSOCIATION AND BEHAVIOR 277 

among the most subtle and powerful forces that control 
our Hves. Here the rule reads, — Form wholesome and 
rational prejudices; cultivate desirable attitudes of mind. 

Educational Corollaries. — These three rules for the 
formation and direction of proper associations are well 
illustrated in school procedure. The principles of repeti- 
tion and interest have already been discussed and need 
no further comment here. The principle of purpose 
and the principle of prejudice, however, need further 
amplification. 

The teacher should never give a lesson to the class, 
should never conduct a recitation, without some definite 
plan. There should be a fundamental idea controlling 
the entire topic or set of topics. All material that is not 
connected with this idea should be excluded. The ma- 
terial excluded may be important in other connections, 
but unless it is related to the topic under consideration it 
has no place in the lesson. The subject may be American 
history and the topic to be developed the manners and 
customs of the New England colonists. Emphasize 
everything that relates to these particular facts, — the 
habits of work and recreation; the customs in dress, 
in travel, in worship ; customary articles of food and 
how they were prepared, served, and eaten. More 
important still, insist that the pupils make a selection 
themselves with these definite points in view. En- 
courage them to find a number of essential topics in what 
they are studying, teach them to make outhnes of the 



278 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

leading facts, — in a word, accustom them to organize 
their own associative processes. 

Not only will the original learning be much more valuable if 
the material is organized, but the recall will be greatly aided. In 
an organized body of knowledge there is the central idea around 
which are arranged subsidiary ideas and the facts that illustrate 
and explain these ideas. Each fact tends to lead up to the central 
idea, and through it to other facts that relate to this idea. The 
facts are thus all bound together, and the recall of one leads natu- 
rally to the recall of the others. 

The Importance of "Prejudices." — We cannot, 

however, " think out " definitely all of the associations 
that enter into our consciousness. Much must always 
be left to those more fundamental attitudes that we have 
called prejudices. Here the idea that is at the basis of 
the prejudice is generally quite obscure. Sometimes it is 
not recognized by ourselves or by others. We refuse for 
a moment to consider certain kinds of action because 
we have been made to " feel " that they are essentially 
wrong. We do not have an " open mind " in these re- 
spects, and we are " illiberal " in regard to the suggested 
conduct. We have no sympathy for the person that 
indulges in this kind of behavior, for we cannot under- 
stand him. 

It can at once be seen that these prejudices are either 
bad or good only in so far as they influence behavior 
beneficially, or the reverse. It would be a misfortune to 
have an open mind in regard to stealing ; it would be 
foolish to attempt rationally to consider the possible 



ASSOCIATION AND BEHAVIOR 279 

desirability of murder. On the other hand, we should 
never shut our minds through prejudice to the considera- 
tion of some of the great social and economic problems 
that are up for discussion before the forum of public 
opinion to-day. 

In forming the right kind of prejudices the teacher, 
scarcely less than the parent, has a great influence and 
a great responsibility. There are some questions that 
should he treated as forever settled ; some topics that cannot 
he dehated. There are, for example, certain " excuses " 
that children offer for improper conduct that cannot 
be tolerated ; there are certain basic ideas that in every 
community should always be stamped with disapproval. 
Those matters, however, that warrant debate should 
never be dogmatically decided. The educated person 
is he who has an open mind for many things, and at 
the same time a stock of firm prejudices that decide his 
behavior in a large number of instances. Such a person 
alone is efficient. 

Depinitions and Explanation of Terms Used 

Simultaneous and successive associations. — In simul- 
taneous associations all of the elements joined together 
are present in a single moment of consciousness. In 
successive associations the parts associated follow one 
another in a temporal sequence. 

Laws of association. — The so-called Primary Laws 
are those of Contiguity in Space and Time and of 



280 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

Similarity (including Contrast). Objects and events 
that are together in space, or that succeed each other 
in time, are likely to be associated ; also objects and 
events that are alike, or that are set over in opposition, 
the one against the other. The so-called Secondary 
Laws are those of Primacy, Recency, Frequeiicy, and 
Vividness. To these is sometimes added a fifth law, 
Congruity of Emotional Tone. By vividness is under- 
stood that quality in an object or event that arouses the 
attention. This may be due to some quality that is 
objectively striking, such as a loud noise or a bright 
light ; or, as is more often the case, it may be the result of 
the interest that the experience possesses for the indi- 
vidual who finds it vivid. Primacy and recency are 
special cases of vividness. The first things and the 
last things tend to arouse the attention because of their 
position in relation to other events. Experiences that 
are frequently repeated tend to become firmly impressed, 
and hence are more Hkely to be recalled. Experiences 
are congruous in emotional tone when they tend to arouse 
the same or similar feelings. For this reason they are 
likely to be associated. 

Purpose. — We ordinarily mean by purpose a goal 
which we hold before the mind and strive to attain. It 
becomes the end of our thought and conduct. In the pres- 
ent discussion the term "purpose" has been used to signify 
not only the definite conscious intention which controls 
our mental processes and determines our actions, but 



ASSOCIATION AND BEHAVIOR 28 1 

also those less definitely recognized ends, desires, and 
interests that we find on examination to be present 
in all of our mental life and which decide the direction 
which our thoughts shall take and the manner in which 
our associations are formed. In this wider sense of the 
term, purpose is the fundamental law that explains the 
arrangement and the grouping of our thoughts. 

Fixed idea. — This is an idea that forces itself on 
attention. The person who is controlled by a fixed idea 
cannot banish it from his mind for any length of time. 
All his associations center around it and are to be ex- 
plained by its presence in consciousness. 

Delusion. — This is a belief that is quite unwarranted, 
but which cannot be banished from the mind of the per- 
son who is a victim of it. 

Organization. — This term signifies the arrangement of 
our thinking according to some fundamental principle. 
All subjects of instruction should be organized around 
a few important points in such a way that all of the 
various facts bear a definite relation to these points. In 
this way the whole will have a significance, and the various 
parts will be more easily kept in mind. 

Questions and Exercises 

1. Distinguish by example between simultaneous and successive 
association. 

2. Give examples of association by contiguity and similarity. 
If the value of association lies in its power to bring past experience 
into consciousness to help us in solving present situations, why 



282 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

is it fortunate that the associations between similar experiences 
have been emphasized in the development of mind? Can you 
give a similar reason for the emphasis of experiences happening 
in close connection with one another {contiguity) ? 

3. Illustrate what is meant b)'^ the statement, "Mental attitude 
or 'purpose' determines associations." Find examples in your 
own experience showing that the same object suggests different 
associations when the purposes or problems that you have in mind 
dififer. 

4. State the secondary laws of association and give an illus- 
tration showing the operation of each. Of these four laws, which 
are the most important in the work of education ? 

5. In what way does attitude or purpose condition the opera- 
tion of these secondary laws ? 

6. Describe the three methods by which the associative processes 
may be formed and controlled. Show how each of these methods 
may be employed in teaching. 

7. What is the influence of prejudices upon behavior? Name 
some prejudices that should, in your opinion, be encouraged. 
Name some that should, if possible, be broken down. 



CHAPTER XVII 
ECONOMY IN LEARNING 

Since all advanced stages of learning are based on 
memory and association, it is evident that correct 
methods of learning depend on the manner in which 
impressions are received and joined together. It is 
not a matter of indifference how we learn. Many in- 
vestigations have been made in recent years to determine 
the most advantageous methods of learning, and it has 
been shown that it is possible to save both time and 
energy by the use of economical devices in memorizing 
and in associating the materials of study. The most im- 
portant of these economical methods will be discussed 
in the present chapter. 

Learning by Wholes vs. Learning by Parts. — It is 
a common practice for a person who is committing a 
piece of poetry or a paragraph of prose to learn it bit 
by bit. In the case of the poem, he studies the first 
stanza until he can repeat it without the aid of the book ; 
then he studies the second stanza in the same way, then 
the third, and so on, until he has JGinished the task. In 
the case of the prose selection, he follows a similar 
method, learning a few sentences at a time. This 
method of learning has been technically called the Part 

283 

/ 
/ 



284 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

Method because the learner commits to memory piece- 
meal. 

It has been conclusively shown that in general this is a 
wasteful method of memorizing, and that it is a saving 
to learn by the Whole Method. When this latter method 
is employed, the poem, or the prose selection, is studied 
from beginning to end each time until the task is com- 
pleted. 

The advantage of the Whole over the Part Method is to be 
explained largely by the fact that, in studying any thing that has 
meaning, correct associations are formed only when each part 
studied is cormected with that next following. In the case of the 
Part Method, however, the last line of the stanza of poetry, for 
example, is not connected with the first line of the stanza 
next following, as it should be according to the sense, but 
it is joined with the first line of the same stanza. Thus it is 
quite possible when learning by the Part Method for the student 
to have no knowledge of the meaning of the selection as a whole. 
He may be able, moreover, to repeat each part learned with ab- 
solute correctness and yet not be able to join the parts together, 
nor to remember the order in which they come. 

Disadvantages of the Whole Method. — There are 
two disadvantages that are connected with the Whole 
Method, however, which must be taken into considera- 
tion and which make certain modifications in procedure 
necessary. In the first place, this way of learning is 
likely to discourage the immature pupil. He studies the 
selection over again and again, and perhaps cannot then 
repeat a single line correctly. It seems as if he were 
making no advance, and he becomes disheartened. The 



ECONOMY IN LEARNING 285 

remedy for this obvious difficulty is to habituate him 
from the start to the Whole Method, to show him that 
in the end it is easier than the Part Method, and that it 
accomplishes more satisfactory results. 

In the second place, it almost invariably happens that 
certain portions of the material that is being studied are 
more difficult than are others. As a result, the easier 
portions are learned long before the more difficult, and yet 
if the Whole Method is strictly followed, these parts 
that have been learned must be studied together with 
those that are harder. For this reason, it is desirable to 
study the whole selection until the easier parts are mastered; 
then to spend some time in mastering the more difficult por- 
tions; and finally to fix the entire selection in mind by the 
Whole Method. 

The Best Length for Learning Periods. — Another 
important question as to the best method of learning may 
be stated as follows : '* If you had two hours that you 
could devote to the study of a certain lesson, would it 
be more advantageous to spend this entire time at one 
sitting, or would it be better to divide the time spent 
into several ; four, for example, allowing thirty minutes 
for each period of study? " When the question is put 
in this way it may be difficult to give an answer for each 
individual case. The thirty-minute period will un- 
doubtedly be more advantageous for young children, 
and probably for mature students that " settle down " to 
their tasks with little loss of time ; for those, however, 



286 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

who spend ten or fifteen minutes in " warming up " for 
their work, short intervals of study are distinctly dis- 
advantageous. In general, however, for a task extending 
over a long period of time, it is better to divide the learn- 
ing into various study periods. For example, it is prob- 
ably desirable to have in the lower grades two periods for 
number work daily rather than one. In the high school 
it is usually more advantageous to extend a study over 
the whole year with shorter periods than to crowd it into 
one semester with long periods. There is no doubt that 
the extended course is decidedly better than the one that is 
given in half the time, although the same number of hours 
may be devoted to the course in each instance. 

The reason for the superiority of the work that is extended 
over a considerable period Hes chiefly in the fact that this added 
time gives the material learned an opportunity to be fixed in 
mind through wide associations. The longer it is present as a 
part of the mental content, the greater is the opportunity for 
estabhshing many associations that relate it to other material that 
is being learned and to that which has already been mastered. 

The Importance of Recall in Learning. — In com- 
mitting a task to memory the learner often turns away 
from the book that is before him to see how much he is 
able to recall. This practice is justified by sound psy- 
chological principles. It has been found by actual 
tests in the laboratory that recall is a great aid in learning, 
and that it should be practised even more than is at 
present the custom. The attempt should be made to 
recall not only at the end of the learning, but at frequent 



ECONOMY IN LEARNING 287 

intervals during the study period. Many a pupil 
believes that he has mastered his lesson when he really 
knows very little about it. His ignorance arises because 
he has not taken the trouble to discover by means of 
attempted recall just where his strength and his weakness 
lie. It is well to spend a certain amount of time at the 
completion of each task in reviewing what has been studied 
and in determining exactly what portions need to he more 
accurately mastered. 

Recall is valuable for two reasons. In the first place, as has 
already been said, it shows the learner where the weak places in 
his task are, and in the second place active recall tends to establish 
firm associations and make a permanent impression. It is a great 
economy in learning to use the spare intervals, periods too brief 
for systematic study, in recalling what has previously been 
studied. The utilization of these odds and ends of time makes an 
important total in the aggregate. 

The Value of the Recitation. — The value of the reci- 
tation is closely related to that of recall. One of the 
chief functions of the recitation period is not to discover how 
much the pupil knows and to assign to him marks, hut to 
show him where his knowledge is weak and his understand- 
ing slight. It is further advantageous as a means of 
emphasizing the important facts and in forming the 
correct associations. In other words, by means of the 
recitation the teacher aids the pupil to recall those 
things that are necessary for him to fix permanently in 
mind. Hence, during the recitation the pupil should 
be encouraged to recall and restate the lesson in large 



288 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

units or " topics." A " pumping " recitation has but 
small value. 

Interference in Learning. — Impressions and associa- 
tions formed at various times tend to interfere with one 
another. If I have just finished learning one selection of 
poetry and at once start to commit another, there is 
danger of confusing the two selections. This fact of 
interference has already been discussed in a preceding 
chapter in another connection. It is to be remembered 
that the chance for interference is greater in proportion 
to the incompleteness of the learning. If I have com- 
mitted the poem so that I can readily remember it and per- 
manently retain it, then my learning of other selections 
subsequently will not interfere with my retention of the 
poem first learned. On the other hand if I have just 
barely mastered the poem, it can easily become confused 
with what I subsequently study. 

Again the possibihty of interference is greater in pro- 
portion to the closeness of the periods of learning the 
first and the second (or interfering) selection. I am more 
likely to confuse two poems when I study one directly 
after the other, than if there is a time interval between. 
For this reason it is always well to leave a brief time 
that is unoccupied between successive periods of study. 
This gives the opportunity for the fixing of the materials 
just learned. 

Finally, interference is directly proportional to the 
similarity of the materials. I am more likely to con- 



ECONOMY IN LEARNING 289 

fuse two dates in history than I am a date in history and 
a formula in mathematics. For this reason subjects that 
are alike should not be studied one directly after the other. 

Interference seems to be due to two chief causes. In the 
first place a certain length of time seems to be required in order 
that the memory impressions shall become established. This is 
irrespective of the associative connections into which they enter. 
In the second place, it is easily seen that since effective recall is 
largely a matter of proper associative connection, it is necessary 
that the correct associations be perfectly free to form themselves 
without entering into competition with other associations that are 
in the process of formation. The greater the meaning of what is 
being learned, the greater is the possibility of forming wrong 
associations, or of breaking up those associations that have just 
been formed. 

The Value of Thorough Learning. — If the material 
that is being learned is to be retained for any length of 
time, it is desirable to study it longer than is necessary 
simply to reproduce it. That which is just barely learned 
is rapidly forgotten, but that which is firmly fixed in 
the mind fades much more slowly from memory. It is 
therefore economical to learn what one is committing to 
memory beyond the stage of mastery that may seem sufficient 
at the time of learning. 

Rote Learning vs. Rational Learning. — Most of 
our learning does not consist in committing to memory 
verbatim the materials of study. It is rather learning 
by the " sense," or " meaning." It is necessary in this 
case to determine what should be held in mind and 
what may be skimmed over and forgotten. It must also 



290 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

be remembered that rote memory is never to he justified 
in itself, hut only in so far as if can later he used in connec- 
tion with something that has weaning. If I commit dates 
in history, lists of rulers of Europe, and presidents of the 
United States ; if I learn to name the principal bones of 
the body and the counties in the state in which I live, — 
this knowledge has value only in so far as it relates itself 
to something that has real significance. Dates in his- 
tory are useful because they mark off important epochs 
and help us to keep in mind momentous events. Presi- 
dents and monarchs have no importance as mere names ; 
they are valuable only in so far as their relation to their 
time and their connection with the events of their day 
are significant. The names of the bones of the body are 
worthless bits of mental furniture unless their use is 
known. The counties of a state are of no importance 
to the learner unless he sees their connection with the 
economic and political conditions of the state. There 
is no learning that is valuahle which does not immediately 
or ultimately connect itself with conduct or behavior; and 
rote memory, if considered for itself alone, is a waste of 
time. More and more as the child advances in the grades 
should the emphasis be placed upon significant learning 
and upon the conditions that are fundamental to it. 

The Value of Mnemonic Devices. — It has been found 
by experiment that it is from eight to ten times as easy to 
commit to memory significant material as material without 
meaning. It is therefore desirable whenever possible 



ECONOMY IN LEARNING 291 

to introduce meaning into what is being studied. This 
necessity has resulted in the use of various tricks in 
learning and in the elaboration of so-called " mnemonic 
methods " of aiding the memory. The often adver- 
tised methods of "improving memory" are generally 
of this character. What is learned is held in mind by 
artificially devised associations, — as, for example, by 
arranging a list of names in such a way that their initial 
letters will spell a word or phrase. The fault with such 
methods of learning lies in the fact that the associations 
thus formed are not of real significance and that they 
must often be unlearned before the significant associations 
can be established. For this reason mnemonic devices 
should be employed with great caution and only when all 
other methods fail. 

" The Warming up " Period in Learning. — It is a 
fact of common observation that much time is often lost 
by the learner in starting upon his task. It may take 
him from five minutes to half an hour to " warm up " to 
his work. Indeed, some persons habitually " dally " 
along, and never get thoroughly engrossed with the task 
at hand. Such individuals find their attention easily 
distracted, and they let their minds wander away from 
their studies at the slightest pretext. Efficient learning is 
largely a matter of concentrated attention. It therefore 
follows that the person who can readily adapt his atten- 
tion, who can plunge at once into his work, has a decided 
advantage over the person whose adaptability is less. 



292 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

This adaptability is partly a matter of individual make-up, 
but largely the result of the formation of correct habits 
and ideals of work. It is improvable to a high degree. 

The Most Favorable Rate of Learning. — The ques- 
tion of the rapidity of learning is important from the 
standpoint of mental economy and efficiency. Is it 
well to go over the material with deliberation or with 
haste? This depends upon at least three things : (i) the 
general disposition or type of the learner, (2) the nature 
of the material, and (3) the stage to which the learning 
has progressed. 

In the first place, there are certain individuals that,'' 
naturally learn more rapidly than do others. This 
rapidity may be due either to carelessness or to the 
mental alertness of the learner. If the rapidity is the 
result of carelessness, then the learner should form the 
habit of studying more deHberately ; if, on the other hand, 
this rapidity is due to superior intelligence, then it 
should be encouraged. The rapid learner is not of 
necessity the rapid forgetter. Slowness may be due to 
stupidity as well as to care and accuracy. 

In the second place, the learning should be more rapid 
with material that is easy to master than with difficult 
material. The difficulty depends on several factors. 
If the subject that is being studied is unfamiliar, 
progress should not be so rapid as if it were well known ; 
simple narration or description is not so difficult to master 
as exposition. 



ECONOMY IN LEARNING 293 

In the third place, the rate of learning should not be 
the same at the beginning of the acquisition as later on. 
At first the learner must proceed slowly in order that he 
may familiarize himself with the material before him ; 
later he can learn more rapidly. It has been shown by 
experiment that the tendency of the learner is to go slowly 
at first and then more rapidly, — to increase the " tempo j'^ 
as it is technically termed. 

A General Rule for Learning. — The various facts 
concerning economical learning discussed in this chapter 
may be summarized in a general rule as follows : — 

(i) All material, no matter what its nature, should 
be gone over carefully and slowly several times until it 
is clearly understood, and then the rate of learning may 
be increased in accordance with the character of the 
material and the type of the learner. 

(2) The material should be studied by the Whole Method 
until the easier parts are mastered ; then the attention 
should be given to the more difficult parts one by one; 
and finally the whole should be studied until it is well 
fixed in mind. 

(3) The study should not end with the first successful 
attempt to reproduce what has been learned, but it 
should continue for some time after this point has been 
reached. 

(4) During, and immediately after, the learning, recall 
should be practiced and the weak parts in the learning 
discovered and strengthened. It is well also at spare 



294 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

intervals to recall to mind what has been previously 
studied. 

(5) If the material to be learned is of considerable 
length, it is economical not to attempt to master it at 
one sitting, but to divide the study into several sittings. 
This is particularly important for children. 

(6) Care should be taken that immediately after one 
study period another subject should not be taken up. 
An interval of from five to ten minutes should he left free, 
and during this time that which has just been learned 
may with great advantage be recalled. 

(7) Whenever it is possible, the learning should be in 
terms of the sense or meaning of the material, since 
learning by rote without regard for meaning is very slow 
and difficult. 

(8) It is highly important that the learner habituate 
himself to begin at once with his task. In other words, he 
should facilitate the adaptation of his attention in all 
ways possible. 

It is important for the teacher to train himself and his pupils 
in economical methods of learning. It is as essential to know 
how to study as to acquire knowledge itself. The teacher is not 
to rest content with requiring that his pupils master the lesson; 
he should inquire into their methods of study ; find out the time 
that is consumed and the conditions under which the work is 
done. He should from the outset show his pupils how to study. 
He should observe them at study and take pains to correct indi- 
vidual faults. Study periods in school should be as important as 
recitation periods. The teacher who has charge of such a period 
should not consider that his duty is done when he sees that order 



ECONOMY IN LEARNING 295 

and quiet are observed. It is desirable that there be more study 
periods in the school hours, even if these are secured at the expense 
of cutting down some of the recitation periods. The conditions of 
study at home are often far from ideal, and here incorrect methods 
of learning may be established and never outgrown. 

It is important that some of the study periods be supervised by 
the teacher with the specific aim of teaching pupils how to study. 
He should have no other class, no personal work that he is trying 
to perform. This may be readily accomplished in the secondary 
school. In the elementary school, however, it is often the custom to 
have one class at work at their desks while another class is reciting. 
Thus it happens that the entire time of the teacher is taken up with 
the recitation. It would be greatly to the advantage of both 
teacher and pupil if during certain study periods the teacher could 
give his entire attention to this phase of the school work. 

Definitions and Explanation of Terms Used 

Whole method. — This term signifies the learning of 
memory material by going over it again and again 
until it is mastered. It is contrasted with the Fart 
Method in which the material is mastered " piecemeal." 

Recall. — The term is used in this chapter to signify 
the practice of attempting to bring back to mind that 
which is being learned, in order that mistakes may be 
noted and the progress that is being made discovered. 

M^monic_ methods of learning. — This signifies the 
use of artificial devices to give meaning to memory 
material when no such meaning exists. As a rule mne- 
monic aids in learning are dangerous. 

Adaptability of attention. — By this is meant the ease 
with which the learner concentrates his attention upon 



296 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

something new. Some individuals spend a long time in 
" warming up " to their work. In such cases they adapt 
their attention slowly; others have readily adaptable 
attention. The adaptability of attention may be im- 
proved by continued effort under guidance of an ideal. 
Tempo of learning. — This relates to the rate of learn- 
ing. Some individuals go over the material rapidly, 
and others slowly. There are not only these individual 
differences, but also differences arising from the nature 
of the material and the point in the progress of the learn- 
ing. 

Questions and Exercises 

1. Contrast the "whole" and "part" methods of learning, and 
state under what conditions each may profitably be employed. 
(The reader would do well to test the relative merits of each of 
these methods for himself. Two poems of equal length, equal 
difficulty, and equal interest should be chosen. One should be 
learned either line by line or stanza by stanza ; the other should 
be learned by rereading and reciting it as a whole until it is mas- 
tered. Note carefuUy the number of repetitions required in each 
case, and the amount of time spent upon the learning. It is also 
well to try the same experiment with prose selections.) 

2. In connection with the tests suggested above, the question 
of the best time-interval for learning may also be investigated. 
In comparing two methods, of course, the intervals given to repe- 
tition should be equal, but when the learning of the two poems has 
been completed by practicing, say, through a number of ten-minute 
periods, try two other poems with thirty-minute periods. 

3. The importance of recall may be tested by learning two selec- 
tions of the same length, difficulty, and interest, reading one re- 
peatedly until it has been thoroughly mastered, and reading the 
other to the point where it can be partly recited, then continuing 



ECONOMY IN LEARNING 297 

by recitation, referring to the printed page only when it is neces- 
sary to "refresh the memory." Note carefully the time consumed 
and the number of repetitions essential to mastery. Needless to 
say, the time intervals and the general method of procedure 
(that is, by "parts" or "wholes" as the case may be) should 
remain constant in the two tests that are to be compared. 

4. What is meant by "interference" in learning? Compare 
with interference in habit-building (see Chapter XI). What other 
resemblances can you detect between habit-building and memoriz- 
ing? 

5. The significance of meaning and organization to learning 
may be clearly seen by comparing the learning of a series of "non- 
sense syllables ' ' with the learning of the same number of syllables 
forming a group of meaningful words. The result is so obvious, 
however, that one does not need the experiment to be convinced 
of the value of organizing materials into meaningful units. 

6. What is meant by "mnemonic devices"? In your own 
experience have you found such devices to be useful ? If so, can 
you explain the secret of their utility ? 

7. Note, in the tests suggested above, the length of the "warm- 
ing up" period. Does it vary in your own learning, and under 
what conditions ? What means do you employ (if any) to shorten 
the period ? 

8. In your own learning, have you noted whether the rate or 
tempo of repetition is a variable factor ? (This may . again be 
tested by experiments similar to those discussed above. Again 
it should be insisted that, in testing one of these factors, all others 
must remain constant.) 

9. What steps may the teacher take to improve methods of 
learning among his pupils ? 



-m9\fv 



CHAPTER XVIII 

BEHAVIOR AND THE HIGHER THOUGHT 
PROCESSES 

In the earlier chapters, the fact has often been em- 
phasized that a large part of our behavior is under the 
control of instinct and habit : definite situations give 
rise to responses that are more or less mechanical in their 
nature. There are, however, occasions when new situa- 
tions are presented that cannot be met in habitual or 
instinctive ways. The old modes of conduct are no 
longer adequate, and something that differs both from 
instinct and from habit must supervene if the difficulty 
is to be solved. 

The Thought Crisis. — It is under these conditions of 
inadequate adjustment that a " thought crisis " arises. 
If the situation is so unusual that we cannot solve it 
by instinct or habit, — if our customary behavior is 
" blocked," and no new modes that are practicable 
present themselves, — we may be seized and overcome 
by emotion. If, however, the new situation presents a 
suggestion of possible solution, — if it seems that a 
satisfactory solution is possible, — we begin to think 
clearly and definitely, we " reason out " how to accom- 
plish the end that we seek. While under the sway of 

298 



BEHAVIOR AND THE HIGHER THOUGHT PROCESSES 299 

emotion our thoughts are confused, our feelings intense, 
and our attention fluctuating; under the guidance of 
reason our ideas become clear, our feelings are subdued, 
and our attention is j&xed successively upon the single 
elements of the situation that apparently lead to the 
goal of our endeavor. 

The incidents of the sailing trip described in Chapter I serve 
to illustrate the development of the thought crises under the stress 
of a new and unexpected situation. The sailing of the boat was 
largely a matter of habit until the ledge of rocks came into view. 
Then it was that a difficxilty was presented demanding intelligent 
action. But an emotion came first. When it seemed as though 
the boat must dash upon the reef, a wave of fear swept over me. 
I did not know how to act. In vain my mind ran over one aspect 
of the situation and then another. I could not think clearly; I 
felt helpless ; and my attention, undirected by reason, focused one 
point and then another in a confused and haphazard fashion. 
But this confusion was only momentary. Out of it the idea of 
"heading the boat up" quickly emerged. Instantly my thoughts 
became clear ; my intense feelings subsided ; I had a definite 
purpose that controlled both my thinking and my doing. But 
this in turn gave place to another wave of emotion when I found 
that, after all, I could not sail around the reef by heading into the 
wind. Again the intense feeling of helplessness overcame me; 
again the ideas became confused, and attention flitted from point 
to point. But once more, a clear idea of a means of escape dis- 
pelled the confusion. Again the flow of thought clarified, and the 
despair that had seized me faded away. I worked rapidly, but 
steadily and persistently. There was nothing haphazard, nothing 
meaningless, in either thought or deed. Out went the sail until 
it hung flapping and limp in the wind. The boat "lost head," 
was caught by the wind and the tide, and thus drifted out of 
danger. The difficulty had been solved, not by falling back upon 



300 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

habit or instinct, not by a lucky chance, but by "thinking out" 
the problem. 

Real Thinking Always Involves a Real Difficulty. — 

Intelligent thinking never arises except under the stress of 
some difi&culty ; it never appears unless a problem is to be 
solved, unless a new set of conditions is to be dealt with. 
This is the first and unvarying condition of thought. 
Nature indulges in no luxuries, and when there is no need 
for thought, intelligently directed behavior disappears. 
When, however, one is compelled to think, the ideas that 
come into consciousness assemble themselves around 
the problem that one is facing. These ideas " flow on," 
so to say, toward the end that one is seeking. In other 
words, the sequences of perceptions and images are, 
in clear thinking, always going somewhere ; they are 
not moving in a haphazard manner as in states of emo- 
tion, idle fancy, or " day dreaming." This is the second 
condition of rational thought. 

Thinking Always Involves Past Experience Revived 
as " Meaning." — Another condition of " thinking " is 
found in the fact that it always goes beyond what is 
immediately present in sensation. A succession of pure 
sensations (or their reproduction in uncontrolled images) 
would not constitute" a thought process. Ideas and 
meanings must be employed ; sensations must be inter- 
preted in the light of past experience ; and more than this, 
the meaning must be related to the problem in hand. 
Conscious processes that have a meaning unrelated to 



BEHAVIOR AND THE HIGHER THOUGHT PROCESSES 3OI 

the problem are likewise incapable of playing a useful 
part in one's thinking. 

This important fact may be illustrated as follows: When I 
heard the band playing on the occasion of the circus parade; 
when I caught a ghmpse of the procession passing my window; 
when I saw the crowd assemble on the street, and my son rush out 
of doors to join it ; these sights and sounds were more than pure 
sensations. They possessed a significance, a meaning, and yet 
I rigorously rejected them, thrust them out of my consciousness, 
because their meaning did not "fit in" with the problem that I 
was then facing. I turned to my desk and once more took up the 
task that I had set before me. As I became more and more 
deeply engrossed in my work, the sensory impressions coming in 
from the outside world became correspondingly dim. I vaguely 
"knew" that I was sitting at my desk, that I had a pen in my 
hand, and that a sheet of paper lay before me ; but these sensory 
data did not enter into my thoughts, not because their meaning was 
unrelated to my problem, but rather because to me at that time 
they were devoid of meaning. Indeed, they were as near to what 
we have termed "pure" sensations as it is possible to approximate 
in states of normal consciousness. 

When we say that certain conscious processes are 
excluded from the onflowing current of thought, then 
we signify either that they have no meaning to us for 
the time being (that they are pure sensations, or pure 
images) ; or that their meaning in no way fits in with the 
meaning of the processes that are then occupying our 
minds (that their meaning has no relation to our prob- 
lem). Usually these two aspects of meaning are closely 
related, since we ordinarily give a meaning to a sensory 
experience in so far as we attend to it, and we usually 



302 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

attend to those sensations that do have significance for 
us in terms of our present problem. 

Passive attention, it is true, often attaches itself to objects that 
have no significance for our thinking, — no relation to our present 
problem. We must let the flash of lightning into our consciousness ; 
we must give it a meaning (that is, recognize it), although it may 
have nothing whatsoever to do with the general trend of our thought. 
However, since it has no place in the assembly of conscious pro- 
cesses, it quickly loses its meaning and is lost to consciousness. 
On the other hand, those experiences that do have a place rapidly 
grow in meaning as they are attended to and brought into the clear 
light of consciousness. 

Meanings Vary with the Problem in Hand. — Mean- 
ing, w^hile it appears in its most marked form in states 
of consciousness that are known as the rational processes, 
is never absent in a consciousness that possesses any 
degree of complexity or significance. The red flag that 
I see is more than a mere red object. It means to me 
danger when I see it displayed at the railroad crossing. 
Later I see a similar flag over a shop door, and now it 
means to me that an auction is in progress. Again, I 
see a red flag carried by a band of men and women who are 
parading through the streets, and this time the flag means 
to me Socialism. In any case, the state of consciousness 
goes beyond the immediate and direct sensations inform- 
ing me of the object and extends to what the object 
signifies. 

All objects of my experience, then, whether present 
to the senses, or merely imagined, signify something be- 



BEHAVIOR AND THE HIGHER THOUGHT PROCESSES 303 

yond the objects themselves. The table that is before 
me means an object to write on, because it stands in my 
study, and I am accustomed to sit at it when I am writ- 
ing. The table in the dining room means an object to 
eat from, because this is its customary use. 

Meaning is Fundamentally Determined by Use or 
Behavior. — This again suggests the important prin- 
ciple already referred to in the chapter on Perception, 
namely, that " meaning " fundamentally resides in the 
use of the object that is given a meaning. This fact is 
strikingly illustrated in the definitions of little children. 
A horse is " to ride" ; candy is "to eat" ; a knife is " to 
cut with"; etc. Only in later childhood are objects 
defined in terms of their qualities, and these in their last 
analysis stand for or represent some kind of behavior 
in reference to the object. If nothing could be done 
with it, — if it had no use, no reference to our lives and 
our needs, — it would have no meaning. 

This is as we should expect it to be, from the principle 
that we have held to in our previous discussions, — 
namely, that consciousness is useful because it helps in 
directing our behavior. The mere sensory experience 
acquires significance only through the acts that accom- 
pany it. Identity of meaning consists in an identity of 
behavior, and a difference in meaning consists in a differ- 
ence of behavior. Two objects mean the same thing 
when the behavior that they call up is identical ; differ- 
ent things, when the accompanying behavior is different. 



304 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

Thus it happens that a single object may mean different 
things to different persons, simply because they behave 
toward it differently ; further, this same object may 
mean different things to the same person at different 
times, because his behavior on these different occasions 
may vary. 

The fact that meaning at first attaches itself to the behavior 
that is called forth by an object that possesses this meaning, and 
later to some quality that resides in the object, may be illustrated 
by the following example : — 

When the boy sees a pond of ice, or calls it up in imagination, 
he at once "thinks of it" as a surface to be skated on. This is its 
meaning to him. An adult may have in mind, in seeing the ice 
or in imagining it, not the activity of skating, but the quality 
of smoothness. Here the meaning is represented by a quality 
rather than by a definite act. But if the significance of smooth- 
ness is analyzed, it will be found to reside in some such activity 
as skating or sliding which is made possible by smoothness. 

Why Meanings Attach to Qualities as Well as to Acts. 

— Accurate thinking requires that meanings should 
attach to quahties as well as to acts because (i) these 
qualities are less cumbersome to deal with in our think- 
ing; (2) they are m^re definite; and (3) they are more 
easily represented in consciousness than are the activities 
that they symbolize. Our thinking would move on in a 
most uncertain and laborious way if we were obhged to 
call to mind in any detail the various kinds of behavior 
that center around an object of consciousness. As 
thought becomes more and more refined and exact, the 
qualities that represent behavior and thus give meaning 



BEHAVIOR AND THE HIGHER THOUGHT PROCESSES 305 

to their objects become less and less rich in movement- 
details, and farther removed from concrete experience. 

The Development of Symbols that Stand for Qualities. 
— But the process of condensation goes even farther 
than this. As acquaintance with the world of objects 
continues, even the qualities become less and less ex- 
plicit in thinking, and a mere word or other " symbol " 
comes to stand for them, and in turn for the types of 
behavior that they represent. A pond of ice is no longer 
definitely adjusted to with certain movements t3^pical 
of skating or sliding. It may no longer even be " visual- 
ized " or imagined in visual terms when we think of it. 
The very word " ice " carries with it all the essential 
meanings. And yet if we analyzed our meaning of this 
word, we should find that it would lead first to definite 
images of the appearance of the ice (its qualities) and 
ultimately to the movements which these quahties imply. 

The Value of Thinking in Symbols. — In order to 
think accurately and rapidly, it is necessary to think 
in symbols, — to think in abstract rather than in con- 
crete terms. But if this thinking is to have final value, 
we must always be able to translate these symbols 
into the behavior for which they stand. 

A helpful analogy may be drawn between the use of symbols 
and the use of money in the commercial world. Symbols — 
words, diagrams, formulae — are the common denominators of 
experience, just as coins are the common denominators of value in 
the business world Money stands for values, represents values ; 
but in itself it need have no value. It must, however, always 



306 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

be capable of being turned into objects or processes that possess 
intrinsic worth, — bread, clothing, building- materials, labor. 
Likewise the symbol may be quite unlike the object for which it 
stands : the word "horse" when written or printed does not look 
like a horse ; when spoken, the sound is not like any sound that 
the horse makes ; there is here no sensory resemblance between 
the symbol and the object symbolized. We simply understand 
that this is to mean what the object "horse" means ; but to use the 
word effectively in our thinking or in communicating with others, 
we must be capable of translating the word into its basic meaning. 

Conceptual and Perceptual Attitudes. — When I rec- 
ognize an object — for example, a pencil — - and know 
what to do with it, I find that my knowledge of the 
pencil is based upon my experience either with this 
particular pencil, or with other pencils. I know how to 
behave in regard to the particular object, for the simple 
reason that I have previously behaved toward the same 
object or toward similar objects in a certain way. A 
conceptual attitude implies that I behave toward various 
objects of a class in a similar way ; while a perceptual at- 
titude implies that I behave toward a definite, particular 
object in a typical manner. 

There is in my study a particular chair that has the "trick" of 
falling over if I lean too heavily against the back. I have learned 
this fact through several unpleasant experiences, and now I conduct 
myself in reference to this fact when I am seated in the chair. 
This particular chair means this particular form of behavior with 
reference to it, and my attitude toward it is a perceptual attitude, 
for I behave toward no other chair in just the same way. Toward 
the majority of chairs, I have the conceptual attitude ; that is, 
I behave toward one just as I do toward the rest. I know how to 



BEHAVIOR AND THE HIGHER THOUGHT PROCESSES 307 

use the various chairs, not because I know anything about these 
chairs in particular, but rather because I have a general idea of 
how to behave toward aU chairs. 

The Economy of Conceptual Behavior : The Judg- 
ment. — It is evident that the conceptual type of be- 
havior is more economical than the perceptual type, since 
the former extends its meanings over a much wider field 
of experience than does the latter. It is therefore highly 
important that rational thought make use of the con- 
ceptual mode of thinking, as, indeed, it does to a very 
large extent. 

Conceptual thinking expresses itself most clearly in 
what is termed the judgment. The judgment identifies 
the particular object of thought with the type to which 
it belongs, and this identification gives us the cue to the 
appropriate behavior. We say, for example, that the 
round, yellow object lying on the shelf is an orange. 
This classifies the particular object with reference to 
similar objects that we have met in our past experience. 
We consequently know what to do with this item of 
present experience. Our behavior is suggested by the 
class into which the object is placed ; or, to use the tech- 
nical term, our conduct is indicated by the general concept 
under which the particular is subsumed. 

Reasoning and the Syllogism. — Thinking culminates 
in reasoning. In reasoning, the various judgments that 
concern a single phase of human experience are joined 
together in such a way that they lead to a conclusion. 



308 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

The most common example of a rational process is to 
be found in what is technically known as the syllogism. 
Here we have a statement called the major premise, 
another known as the minor premise, both leading to a 
conclusion that is " deduced " from the two 'oremises. 
For example, we make the judgment, " All honest men 
tell the truth " ; and we follow this statement by a second, 
" John Smith is an honest man " ; this brings us to the 
conclusion, " John Smith tells the truth." We call this 
process deduction, because we start from some general 
principle and arrive at a particular conclusion. 

Reasoning often takes the opposite direction, however. 
We observe that, day after day, the sun rises in the east. 
From these particulars we arrive at the conclusion that 
the sun always rises in the east. This method of pro- 
cedure from the particular to the general is termed 
induction. 

Both Induction and Deduction Characterize Thinking. 
— Ordinarily both induction and deduction are em- 
ployed in solving a problem by the rational method. It 
is only on exceptional occasions that either method is 
used alone. From observing a number of facts, we con- 
clude that a certain general principle appHes ; then we 
seek, from the suggestions given by this general principle, 
to find more facts that will confirm it. 

Inductive Teaching. — Successful teachers frequently 
employ what is known as the " inductive development 
lesson " to impart a general principle, a rule, or a defini- 



BEHAVIOR AND THE HIGHER THOUGHT PROCESSES 309 

tion. It is the purpose of this lesson to lead the pupils 
to see, in a number of particular instances, the operation 
of a general truth which holds for all of the cases studied. 
In a sense, the pupils " rediscover " the principle for 
themselves, although it should be remembered that this 
" rediscovery " is only partial ; in other words, the mate- 
rials are so presented that the principle comes out in a 
clear and unequivocal fashion. 

The different phases of the inductive development lesson have 
been termed the "formal steps." They are five in number: 
(i) the preparation, culminating in the statement of the aim; 
(2) the presentation; (3) the comparison and abstraction; (4) the 
generalization; and (5) the application. 

(i) The preparation is the introductory step, and aims to adjust 
the pupil to the problem of the lesson. This is usually accom- 
plished by reviewing the knowledge that he already possesses 
bearing upon the problem. If, for example, the aim of the lesson 
is to develop the principle that cities are likely to grow up at the 
termini of trade routes, or where transshipment of goods is neces- 
sary, the step of preparation would briefly recall to the pupils' 
minds what they have already learned about trade routes; the 
names and location of cities that owe their growth to this law; 
and similar data. This work is largely informal and conversational 
in character, and should lead naturally to the statement of the 
problem in concrete terms; for example, "To-day we shall try 
to find out why these cities have grown up at these points." 

(2) In the step of presentation, new facts are given and illus- 
trated with reference to the problem in hand. In the example 
already cited, the important facts are those that have to do with 
the necessity for transshipment. These may be presented by 
pictures showing the typical commercial activities of such cities 
as New York, Buffalo, Duluth, New Orleans, and Baltimore. 



3IO HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

The differences between rail, river, canal, and ocean transporta- 
tion would be clearly and forcibly brought out, with the emphasis 
upon the need of docks, elevators, and warehouses ; the necessity 
for employing large numbers of men in loading and unloading; 
the probability that many of the men employed on the railroads, 
the canal boats, and the ocean-going ships would make their homes 
at these termini; the need of stores, banks, and other business 
houses to provide for this population ; and, finally, the advantage 
that is offered by a "center" of this sort for manufacturing estab- 
lishments that may take advantage of the possibility of shipping 
goods over various routes. 

(3) The step of comparison and abstraction is frequently fused 
v/ith the step of presentation, but it is always well to bear in mind 
the importance of making comparisons and of finding out the points 
that are common to the facts presented. As the lesson on the 
growth of cities proceeds, every fact presented should be related 
to the problem in hand: "Why will the necessity for transship- 
ment bring people to the point of transshipment?" "Why will 
the presence of laborers, railroad men, and sailors mean that stores 
and banks will develop?" "Why are manufacturing industries 
likely to grow up in a city of this sort ? " The points of similarity 
between the different cities studied are also emphasized. 

(4) In the step of generalization, the essential conclusion re- 
vealed by the study of particulars is formulated in a rule, general 
principle, or definition. 

(5) The step of application carries the generalization, principle, 
or rule back to other concrete cases which it may "cover" or ex- 
plain. Thus the principle that cities tend to develop at the termini 
of trade routes may be inductively derived from a study of a few 
particular instances, and then employed to explain other instances. 
Where it fails satisfactorily to account for the growth, another prob- 
lem is raised which may in turn lead to another inductive lesson. 

From the example given, it is clear that the " induc- 
tive " lesson is not exclusively inductive. The step of 



BEHAVIOR AND THE HIGHER THOUGHT PROCESSES 311 

application, indeed, represents almost a purely deductive 
procedure, — passing from the general principle to par- 
ticular instances. There are other stages of deduction 
interwoven throughout the inductive process. This 
alternation of induction and deduction is usual through- 
out all constructive thinking. 

A very good example of this alternation may be found 
in the detection of crime. The procedure here illustrates 
actual " reasoning " rather more clearly than does a 
school lesson, for the latter ordinarily deals with problems 
that have already been solved, and only a few of the 
essential stages in the process of original discovery are 
repeated with the pupils. (It should be remembered 
that this process in school work is justified, not because 
the various rules and principles are really sanctioned by 
the few particulars that can be presented, but rather 
because the method is effective in fixing the principle in 
the minds of pupils.) 

To take an illustration from the field of crime-detec- 
tion : A murder has been committed. The room of the 
victim is found in disorder, and the body of the mur- 
dered man Hes at the side of the bed. The first step is 
to get a clear idea of the details of the case. For this 
reason the room is minutely examined, and every detail 
that may have a bearing upon the case is noted and re- 
corded. This procedure corresponds roughly to the step 
of presentation described above. Next, through a pro- 
cess of comparison, abstraction, and generalization, the 



312 HITMAN BEHAVIOR 

conclusion is reached that X committed the crime. 
This conclusion " covers " and explains the particular 
facts, but is an "assumption" or "hypothesis" that 
must be tested by finding out how it fits into other facts 
that have been neglected for the time being, such as the 
whereabouts of the accused at the time of the murder, 
the motive that he may have had, and the like. This 
stage is roughly analogous to the step of application. 

Here, as in the example from teaching, there are inter- 
woven threads of induction and deduction. In the first 
place, before the significant facts can be intelligently 
observed and collected, there must be some point of 
view, some criterion, some " theory," that will guide in 
their collection. Not every detail or incident is impor- 
tant, and the point of view or theory decides what shall 
be accepted and what rejected. Thus a general prin- 
ciple operates from the very outset, and initiates a de- 
ductive procedure. Finally, after all of the facts have 
been collected and (it may be) an entirely different con- 
clusion reached, it is essential to test this conclusion with 
reference to all of the available data. This again is a 
deductive procedure. 

Educational Corollaries. — In the light of the preced- 
ing discussion, certain suggestions with regard to the 
place of reasoning in the process of education may be 
indicated : — 

(i) The Pupil should he Confronted with Actual Prob- 
lems. — Since thinking comes only when a problem 



BEHAVIOR AND THE HIGHER THOUGHT PROCESSES 313 

is presented or a situation faced, only when a " crisis " in 
our behavior arises, it follows that, to stimulate thought, 
we should confront the pupil with actual problems. 
Wherever possible, the materials of instruction should 
be brought forward to solve problems which the pupil 
recognizes as such. Assimilated in this way, facts and 
principles take on a significance and meaning which they 
would otherwise lack. Unfortunately, not all of the 
knowledge that must be imparted can be presented in 
answer to a definite problem arising in the pupil's own 
life ; but the teacher will find that effort spent in search- 
ing out possible points of contact between the lives of 
the pupils and the materials of instruction will pay large 
dividends in interest, enthusiasm, effective learning, and 
accurate retention. 

This process is technically known as "motivating" the work of 
instruction, and is similar to the process of motivating the habit- 
building disciplines. Very frequently, however, the term is used 
in too narrow a significance. While it is well to employ in vitaliz- 
ing instruction the pupils' interest in games, in out-of-door activities 
such as garden-making and school-excursions, in manual-training 
work, and in dramatics, it should also be remembered that the 
older type of school work provided many opportunities for real 
and engrossing problem-interests. Eighth-grade children may, 
for example, be curious to know the causes that led to the Civil 
War. This interest forms a real and effective problem or "situa- 
tion" from which a valuable exercise in reasoning may result. 
In the light of this interest, a list of facts may be presented and the 
pupils asked to select from these any that seem to be significant 
as causes of the War. Animated discussions will follow as to why 



314 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

certain events were significant and other events insignificant. 
Under the guidance of the teacher, the relations between cause and 
effect will be emphasized in an effective way, and the real cause 
may be formulated in a summary or conclusion. 

In this connection, it is clear that presenting facts 
with reference to a problem is one way of organizing these 
facts. Teaching which continually emphasizes this pro- 
cedure will inevitably impress the pupil with the value 
of knowledge in solving problems, and with the impor- 
tance of organizing knowledge with reference to unify- 
ing purposes. 

The "assignment" of lessons is particularly important from 
this point of view. In a skillful assignment, the material to be 
studied is definitely and explicitly related to some problem or 
purpose. Generally the new material leads on from a point that 
the pupils have already reached, and, in many cases, problems have 
already arisen in their minds which can be solved only by the 
material of the new lesson. The expert teacher is always very 
careful in making assignments to make these problems explicit, 
and to show in what way the new lesson will help to solve them. 

(2) The Development of " Meanings " is Fundamental 
to Effective Reasoning: the Importance of Actual Adjust- 
ments. — Since rational thought involves the employ- 
ment of meanings, it is essential that the pupil be well 
supplied with a stock of meanings if he is to think effec- 
tively. In other words, he must have his " resources," 
— his " stock in trade," — as well as a problem to solve. 

Since meaning is, in the last analysis, to be reduced to 
behavior or conduct, it follows that the factor of doing, 



BEHAVIOR AND THE HIGHER THOUGHT PROCESSES 315 

of making actual adjustments to actual situations, is an 
important element in teaching the pupil how to think. 
The words that form the vehicles of meanings must be 
capable of being worked back into actual adjustment; 
otherwise their employment in education is but the most 
barren type of formalism. 

It is at this point that the emphasis that has been placed in 
recent years upon manual training and other types of teaching 
involving actual motor responses finds a large part of its justifica- 
tion. These activities are important, not only because they 
"fit for life," but also because they give significance and meaning 
to the more abstract processes that the school properly emphasizes. 
All of the "laboratory" subjects, such as physics, chemistry, 
botany, zoology, physiography, and physiology, make a prominent 
use of this factor. In the study of literature, the temperate 
employment of the dramatic tendency has been found to add a 
most valuable element in understanding and appreciation. 

But it should not be supposed that effective response need 
always involve actual movements of the body, actual motor ad- 
justments to external situations. The factor of doing is sometimes 
adequately represented by imagined adjustments. Even the older 
formal education, with its exclusive emphasis upon words, was often 
effective because, with many of the pupils, the words suggested 
motor responses which were carried out imaginatively. The prob- 
lem of education in giving the pupil a usable capital of meanings 
is to make certain that words will operate in this way, and that the 
pupil will live in imagination, if not actually, the events and condi- 
tions which the words describe. In short, successful education 
should enable the pupil to think out his problems when necessary 
without the employment of actual objective situations. But, in 
order to attain this end, it must emphasize the objective situations 
in its earlier stages, and proceed very gradually from the concrete 
to the "abstract." 



3l6 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

(3) General Meanings or Concepts are the Most Impor- 
tant Resources for Thinking. — The concept, as has been 
said, stands for a " type-reaction " that includes a large 
number of particular cases. It, therefore, becomes the 
" cue " to a large number of acts and covers a wide 
range of behavior. It is obviously of the greatest impor- 
tance from the standpoint of mental economy to reduce 
experience to the form of general concepts and principles, 
and thus to provide the " resources " of thinking. The 
conceptual attitude is the essential attitude of intelligent 
human beings. 

One of the oldest and most important principles of teaching is 
the "Law of Concept-building." This is usually stated as follows : 
" Proceed from the concrete to the abstract ; from the particular 
to the general ; from cases to principles." Thus in developing the 
meaning of any important term (such as "noun," "adjective," 
"verb," "adverb," and "preposition," in grammar ; "commerce," 
"water shed," "river basin," "coastal plain," etc., in geography; 
"digestion," "respiration," "locomotion," in physiology; "con- 
tagion," "infection," etc., in hygiene; "representative govern- 
ment," "electoral college," "democracy," "bill," "law," "act," 
etc., in civics) the teacher first brings the pupils face to face with 
concrete cases illustrating these terms just as clearly as possible, 
presenting them, if feasible, in connection with definite problems. 
After the pupils have become familiar with the concrete cases, 
the "definition" of the term may be formulated and learned. In 
some cases, the definition may be given first and then illustrated 
by a wealth of concrete details. The order of procedure will 
depend upon circumstances, and no dogmatic rule can be laid down 
for governing this phase of the teaching ; the illustration of the 
definition is the important thing, and for this the teacher can afford 
to spend a great deal of careful planning. 



BEHAVIOR AND THE HIGHER THOUGHT PROCESSES 317 

In general, illustrations should be selected upon the basis of the 
clearness with which they body forth the principle or the definition 
that the teacher wishes to impart. Many illustrations miscarry 
because they suggest irrelevant factors, — lead the pupil off "on 
the wrong track" and consequently obscure rather than illuminate 
the point at issue. Again, the point may be so enmeshed in details 
that the pupil "cannot see the woods for the trees." 

Illustrations, wherever possible, should be objective. The school 
museum is important in this connection, especially in providing 
specimens of various commodities of commerce in different stages 
of manufacture. In many cases, definitions can be richly illus- 
trated by school excursions to near-by points of interest. A visit 
to the freight depot, for example, may be made to illustrate very 
effectively the meaning of the word "commerce." 

Objective illustration, as has been said in another connection, 
may be profitably supplemented by the use of pictures, dia- 
grams, and charts ; and there are, of course, many phases of 
instruction that can be illustrated only through these means. 
The stereoscope, the projection lantern, and the reflectoscope 
offer opportunities for helping imagination to construct and 
react to situations that the pupil could never have an oppor- 
tunity actually to face. The moving picture will doubtless 
be utilized in the schools of the next generation, and even now it is 
possible to arrange with local moving-picture theaters for the pres- 
entation of films in the school; and manufacturers of films are 
beginning to provide for this extension of their activities. 

In connection with the use of pictures, as has already been 
pointed out, it is essential to keep clear in mind the purpose of the 
work. As an educative agency, the picture must be something 
more than merely entertaining. It must illustrate a definition 
or a general principle, and the teacher must see to it that the 
pupils pass from the perceptual to the conceptual attitude. 

(4) The Tentative Hypothesis: its Value and its 
Dangers. — It has been pointed out that inductive 



3l8 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

reasoning works from particulars toward a general con- 
clusion which will cover the particulars studied and which 
is generahzed to cover other similar particulars. It is, 
however, impossible in most cases to test the generaliza- 
tion with reference to all of the particulars which it is 
supposed to cover. When a generalization is suggested 
by a study of a few concrete cases, it is known as a " ten- 
tative hypothesis," and if it is found valid when appHed 
to a large number of cases, it becomes a " law." 

It is fundamentally important in education to em- 
phasize the distinction between " tentative hypothesis " 
and " laws." The hypothesis is, of course, a necessary 
and valuable step in reasoning. It forms the " clew " 
upon which further reasoning proceeds. The danger that . 
confronts the reasoner is that he will take the hypothesis 
as a permanent principle, and then shut his mind to the 
facts that it fails to fit. 

There are two points at which the danger of confusing an hy- 
pothesis with a law needs to be guarded against with especial zeal. 
One is represented by the investigations that are made to establish 
some beUef in which the investigator is deeply and emotionally 
interested. In a case of this sort, he is likely to find what he is 
looking for, and to be blind to anything on the other side. He 
may be quite unconscious that his bias is thus defeating the purposes 
of his investigation; hence it is essential that he should consciously 
" lean" a Uttle to the other side, in order to counteract the deep- 
lying attitude that unconsciously tends toward the desired result. 

In the second place, it is always well to place the burden of 
evidence upon any hypothesis that tends to open the lines of least 
resistance, intellectually or morally. It is sometimes said, for 



BEHAVIOR AND THE HIGHER THOUGHT PROCESSES 319 

example, that a "strict" bringing-up defeats its own purposes, 
leading to an evil life rather than to a good life. The example of 
clergymen's sons is often cited in this connection. If a boy who has 
been brought up in the family of a clergyman "goes wrong," 
this single fact is likely to be extended or generalized to cover 
all such cases. As a matter of fact, there is no evidence to show 
that the rule is general, and much evidence that points to the 
permanent influence of a home discipline that is administered with 
reasonable rigor. Discipline of the latter type is the line of greatest 
resistance, consequently the burden of proof should be placed upon 
the theory that speaks against it. The same principle holds with 
matters of school government ; a proposed policy that is based upon 
"soft" and "easy" methods should certainly be looked upon as 
a tentative hypothesis, not necessarily to be rejected, for it may 
involve a helpful reform ; but rather to be tested carefully under 
controlled conditions and within a restricted area until its influence 
can be accurately determined. 

The Problem of "Training Reasoning." — The fore- 
going summary w^ould be incomplete without a refer- 
ence to the possibility of developing " reasoning power." 
This question, like that of the " transfer " of specil&c 
habits, has been disputed very vigorously among educa- 
tors during the last two decades. The following hy- 
potheses may form tentative suggestions for practice 
pending a final decision : — 

(i) The pupil may be profitably instructed in methods 
of reasoning. He may be taught by numerous examples 
the necessity of extended and unprejudiced observation, 
of careful comparison and abstraction, and of cautious 
generalization. He may be shown over and over again 
the danger of drawing hasty conclusions, of leaving out 



320 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

of consideration factors that must influence his judg- 
ment, and of depending without question upon the 
" hearsay " evidence of others. He may be taught 
the value of approaching his problems in the rational 
attitude, of analyzing them into their elements, and of 
searching in his experience and in the records of race 
experience for some practicable solution. If he is led 
over and over again to take these steps, to go through 
with the rational processes himself, and if, moreover, 
he is thoroughly Impressed with their value — with 
the fact that they " get results '^ — there is every reason 
to beUeve that his mind will be " trained " somewhat 
as the older adovcates of the " doctrine of formal dis- 
cipline " contended. He will gradually formulate an 
ideal of rational procedure. 

(2) In this connection, also, it is possible to give the 
pupil a command of what may be called the ideal " sche- 
mata " of reasoning. He may learn to arrange his pi'op- 
ositions in a logical order so that the connection of one 
with another will be clearly revealed. In other words, 
he may be taught, through innumerable illustrations 
and exercises, to organize in a logical fashion, his facts, 
principles, hypotheses, conclusions, and proofs. 

The courses in geometry are often effective in attain- 
ing this result. The pupil sees the advantage of arrang- 
ing arguments in a certain, definite order, passing grad- 
ually from step to step until the conclusion is reached 
or the principle estabhshed. Well-organized work in 



BEHAVIOR AND THE HIGHER THOUGHT PROCESSES 32 1 

English grammar and especially in the grammar of the 
more highly inflected languages, such as Latin or German, 
may contribute toward the same end, — provided that 
the teacher is skillful enough to make clear to his pupils 
the advantage of close organization. 

(3) The high school pupil may come to appreciate 
the worth of the rational attitude as contrasted with the 
emotional attitude or the attitude of " trial and error." 
He may be shown through the study of physics, chemistry, 
and biology, and perhaps through the study of indus- 
trial history, that careful, serious, persistent, and patient 
thinking has made possible the great triumphs of science, 
and the comforts and amenities of life that have resulted 
from these achievements. The lives of men like Morse, 
Stephenson, Fulton, and the Wrights are full of inspira- 
tion to the normal adolescent, and these lives illustrate 
at every point the triumph of reason over the obstacles 
that nature has placed in the way of human progress. 

(4) Whatever may be the case with regard to the 
methods of rational thinking, there can be no doubt 
that the reasoning " capacity " depends as much upon 
" resources " as upon " method," and here education 
has a clear and undisputed field. It can and must supply 
the pupil with the concepts, the facts, and the principles 
that have been garnered and winnowed through the long 
course of human experience, and which constitute the 
materials with which reasoning works. In other words, 
it can and must pass on to each generation as much of 



322 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

the accurate knowledge that has been accumulated as 
the child can readily assimilate. In this way, possi- 
bilities of rational thinking are opened up, and, if the 
teacher does his best to demonstrate to the child the 
rational methods of using this knowledge and to give him 
an appreciation of the value of using knowledge rationally, 
he may be fairly confident that something has been done 
to " train the reasoning powers." 

Definitions and Explanation of Terms Used 

Thinking. — A complex mental process which may 
take place when instinct and habit are inadequate in 
directing behavior. In the process of thought past 
experience is consciously brought to bear upon a present 
situation. The process of thought differs from an emo- 
tion in that it involves a steady onflow of ideas and 
perceptions, and clearness of ideas rather than affective 
intensity. 

Meaning. — The essential form in which past expe- 
rience operates in the process of thinking. As was pointed 
out in the chapter on Perception, the " meaning " of a 
group of sensory impressions is determined by the adjust- 
ments or responses that have been made to these impres- 
sions in the course of experience. The qualities repre- 
sented by the sensory ingredients in a perception or an 
idea, however, gradually come to stand for or represent 
these adjustments or responses ; and the quahties may in 
turn be replaced by symbols which bear no sensory re- 



BEHAVIOR AND THE HIGHER THOUGHT PROCESSES 323 

semblance whatsoever to the original perceptions, but 
to which the appropriate meanings may be attached. 
Thus meaning is, at basis, a " cue " which suggests a 
certain adjustment. 

Conceptual attitudes. — These are often termed con- 
cepts. A concept or a conceptual attitude is a general 
meaning ; that is, a " cue "for a type of conduct that 
holds good for a number of different objects or situations. 

Judgment. — The simplest process of thought, consist- 
ing in identifying a perception or an idea under a more 
general meaning, and thus suggesting the type of conduct 
that is appropriate. 

Judgment, like all thought-processes, arises only in a 
" crisis " which compels the individual to hesitate before 
acting; in this period of hesitation, the situation is 
analyzed, and the analysis suggests the concept with 
which it is to be identified or otherwise related. 

Reasoning. — A more complicated process of thinking 
which involves passing from one judgment to another, 
and finally reaching a conclusion. 

Inductive reasoning. — That form of reasoning which 
proceeds from particular judgments to one that is more 
general. 

Deductive reasoning. — That form which proceeds 
from a general judgment to a statement of one or more 
of the particular judgments which it " covers." 

Inductive teaching. — The t3^e of teaching that leads 
the pupil from particular judgments to a general con- 



324 HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

elusion. The inductive development lesson leads the pupil 
gradually to see in the particular judgments the operation 
of a general truth and to formulate this general judgment. 
Tentative hypothesis. — A judgment based upon an 
inspection of a relatively few particulars, and inferred 
to cover all particulars of the same class. 

Questions and Exercises 

1. Find in your own experience an example of a "thought 
crisis." What difficulty did the crisis present ? Did you formu- 
late the difficulty in words ? Was there a tendency at first or at 
any time during the process of solving the difficuhy to give way 
to emotion? If so, contrast the emotional experience with the 
thought experience. Can you subscribe to the statement that 
thinking involves clear ideas and a coherent onflowing of mental 
processes, while an emotion involves unstable attention and mental 
confusion, combined with great affective intensity ? 

2. In solving the difficulty through a process of thinking, 
indicate the points at which your past experience was revived as 
an aid in making a new adjustment. Was past experience revived 
in perceptual terms or in conceptual terms ? Did you formulate 
in words a definite judgment as the "conclusion" was reached? 
If so, what was the nature of the judgment, — did you identify 
a part of the new situation under a general term or symbol which 
suggested a "type" adjustment? 

3. Distinguish (by an example from your own experience) 
between judgment and reasoning. What is meant by inductive 
reasoning? By deductive reasoning? Give an illustration of a 
course of reasoning that is chiefly inductive, and point out the 
places where deductive processes appear. 

4. What is the value of symbols in thinking. What do you 
have in consciousness as you read the following words : home, 
pavement, horse, bicycle, floor, swift, smooth, charity, walk? 



BEHAVIOR AND THE HIGHER THOUGHT PROCESSES 325 

Describe as accurately as possible the mental processes that con- 
stitute your consciousness as you read, and get the "meaning" of 
the following sentences: "With a light heart, she left the house 
and tripped down the steps." "He remained at the key in spite 
of the accident." "The boiler exploded and the man was killed; 
he was a stationary engineer." "We felt the jar." (Note the 
changes that take place in your consciousness as the interpreta- 
tions of the words vary.) 

5. Prepare a number of problems that might be presented to 
an eighth-grade class when the formation of the Federal Constitu- 
tion is being studied. How would you introduce, in such a way that 
a "problem" would be present, a lesson in English grammar 
involving the working out of a definition of the adverb ? Suggest 
for a sixth-grade lesson an assignment on the industries of New 
England which will present a problem or a series of problems to 
be solved by the pupils. 

6. What steps would you take in teaching geography to show 
the pupils the value of rational thinking instead of rote learning ? 

7. Can you definitely describe any way in which your study of 
geometry has helped you in reasoning in other fields ? In what 
ways, if any, has the study of English grammar helped you in 
reasoning in other fields? 



APPENDIX 

SUGGESTED COLLATERAL READINGS 

Chapter I, Consciousness and Conduct 

James, Talks on Psychology and Life's Ideals, Chapters II, III, 
IV, and V. 

, Psychology, Briefer Course, Chapters XI and XXIII. 

KiRKPATRiCK, Genetic Psychology, Chapter VII. 
O'Shea, Education as Adjustment, Chapter V. 
RoYCE, Outlines of Psychology, Chapter IV. 

Chapter II, Behavior and Learning 

CoLViN, The Learning Process, Chapter I. - 
Kirkpatrick, Genetic Psychology, Chapters III and V. 
Washburn, The Animal Mind, Chapters X and XI. 

Chapter III, Unlearned Behavior 

Groos, The Play of Man, Part III. 

Hall, Aspects of Child Life and Education, pages 84-141. 

, Youth, Chapter VI. 

Chapter IV, Attention and Behavior 

Angell, Psychology, Chapter IV. 

Bagley, Classroom Management, Chapters IX, X, XI, and XII. 

Calkins, A First Book in Psychology, Chapter VI. 

James, Psychology, Briefer Course, Chapter XIII. 

, Talks on Psychology and Life's Ideals, Chapters X and XI. 

PiLLSBURY, Essentials of Psychology, Chapter V. 
RoYCE, OutUnes of Psychology, Chapter XI. 

327 



328 APPENDIX 

Seashore, Elementary Experiments in Psychology, Chapter XIII. 
TiTCHENER, An Outline of Psychology, Chapter VI. 

Chapter V, Behavior and the Feelings, and Chapter VI, 
The Practical Significance of the Affective Life 

Angell, Psychology, Chapters XIII, XIV, XVIII, and XIX. 

Calkins, A First Book in Psychology, Chapter XL 

James, Psychology, Briefer Course, Chapter XXIV. 

Pillsbury, Essentials of Psychology, Chapters XI and XII. 

RoYCE, Outlines of Psychology, Chapter VII. 

Titchener, An Outline of Psychology, Chapters V, IX, and XIII. 

Chapter VII, The Nervous System as the Organ of 
Behavior 

Angell, Psychology, Chapter II. 

James, Psychology, Briefer Course, Chapters VII and VIII. 

JuDD, Psychology, Chapters II and III. 

Pillsbury, Essentials of Psychology, Chapter II. 

Thorndike, Elements of Psychology, Chapters IX and X. 

Chapter VIII, Reflex and Instinctive Behavior; Chapter 

IX, The Value of the Human Instincts, and Chapter 

X, How Instinctive Behavior may be Changed 

Angell, Psychology, Chapters XV, XVI, and XVII. 
Hall, Aspects of Child Life and Education, pages 205-239. 
James, Psychology, Briefer Course, Chapter XXV. 

, Talks on Psychology and Life's Ideals, Chapter VI. 

MacDougall, Social Psychology, Chapters II, III, and IV. 
Marshall, Instinct and Reason, Chapters IV, V, and VI. 
Pillsbury, Essentials of Psychology, Chapter X. 

Chapter XI, Habitual Behavior and the Law of Habit 
Building 

Angell, Psychology, Chapter HI. 

Bagley, The Educative Process, Chapter VII. 



APPENDIX 329 

James, Psychology, Briefer Course, Chapter X, 
JUDD, Psychology, Chapter VIII. 
RoYCE, Outlines of Psychology, Chapter VIII. 
Swift, Mind in the Making, Chapter VI. 

Chapter XII, Sensation and Behavior 

Angell, Psychology, Chapter V. 

Calkins, A First Book in Psychology, Chapter III. 

James, Psychology, Briefer Course, Chapters II, III, IV, V, and 

VI. 
JuDD, Psychology, Chapter V. 
PiLLSBURY, Essentials of Psychology, Chapter IV. 
Royce, Outlines of Psychology, Chapter V. 
Seashore, Elementary Experiments in Psychology, Chapters I, II, 

and III. 
Titchener, An Outline of Psychology, Chapters II and III. 

Chapter XIII, Perception and Behavior 

Angell, Psychology, Chapter VI. 

Hall, Aspects of Child Life and Education, pages 1-52. 

James, Psychology, Briefer Course, Chapter XX. 

, Talks on Psychology and Life's Ideals, Chapter XIV. 

Jastrow, Fact and Fable in Psychology, pages 275-295. 
Pillsbury, Essentials of Psychology, Chapter VII. 
Seashore, Elementary Experiments in Psychology, Chapters XII 
and XIV. 

Chapter XIV, Imagination and Behavior 

Angell, Psychology, Chapter VIII. 

Calkins, A First Book in Psychology, Chapter II. 

Colvin, The Learning Process, Chapters VII and VIII. 

James, Psychology, Briefer Course, Chapter XIX. 

Royce, Outlines of Psychology, Chapter VI. 

Seashore, Elementary Experiments in Psychology, Chapter IX. 



330 APPENDIX 

Chapter XV, Memory and Behavior 
Angell, Psychology, Chapter IX. 
CoLViN, The Learning Process, Chapter IX. 
James, Psychology, Briefer Course, Chapter XVIII. 

, Talks on Psychology and Life's Ideals, Chapter XII. 

Seashore, Elementary Experiments in Psychology, Chapter XI. 
TiTCHENER, An Outline of Psychology, Chapter XI. 

Ch.^ter XVI, Association and Behavior 

Angell, Psychology, Chapter VIII. 

Bagley, The Educative Process, Chapter XI. 

CoLViN, The Learning Process, Chapter X. 

James, Psychology, Briefer Course, Chapter XVI. 

PiLLSBURY, Essentials of Psychology, Chapter VI. 

Seashore, Elementary Experiments in Psychology, Chapter X. 

Chapter XVII, Economy in Learning 

Calkins, A First Book in Psychology, Chapter VII, pages 115-123. 
Colvin, The Learning Process, Chapter XI. 
McMuRRY, How to Study, Chapter VII. 
Pillsbury, Essentials of Psychology, Chapter VII. 
Watt, Economy and Training of Memory. 

Chapter XVIII, Behavior and the Higher Thought 
Processes 

Angell, Psychology, Chapters X, XI, and XII. 

Bagley, The Educative Process, Chapters VIII, IX and X. 

Colvin, The Learning Process, Chapters XX, XXI, and XXII. 

Dewey, How We Tliink. 

James, Psychology, Briefer Course, Chapter XXII. 

Pillsbury, Essentials of Psychology, Chapter IX. 



INDEX 



Abstraction, step of, 310. 

Accuracy, in habit formation, lyg. 

Active attention, definition of, 68; in 
modifying instincts, 160. 

AdaptE-tion, visual, 195 f., 207. 

Adaptive instincts, 128 ff., 149 f . ; 
value of, 140 £f. 

Adjustment, control of, 16 f. ; defini- 
tion of, 19. 

Adventure, spirit of, 144. 

^Esthetic emotions, function of, 102 ; 
instinctive basis of, 134 f. 

Affection, as conscious element, 7, 73 f., 
190; significance of, 89 f. ; in teach- 
ing, 98; and attention, 89 f. ; and 
behavior, 72 ff. ; and efficiency, 75; 
and instinct, 132 f.; and habit, 166; 
and moral culture, 153. 

After-images, 196 f., 208, 228. 

Aim, statement of, 309. 

Altruistic instincts, 132. 

Amoeba, structure of, 107 f. 

Angell, J. R., 97, 115. 

Anger, 77 ; instinctive basis of, 131 ; 
in learning, loi. 

Animal psychology, 26, 27, 32, 45, 60, 
243- 

Animals, learning in, 26 f., 32, 45 ; be- 
havior of, 32, 109, 343 f. ; attention 
of, 60. 

Anit-social instincts, 143. 

Apperception, 225; and perception, 
217; and habit, 213. 

Application, step of, 311. 

Aristotle, 152. 

Arithmetic, teaching of, 170. 

Arrogance, feeling of, 132. 

Articular sensations, 202. 

Assignment, of lessons, 314. 

Associating neurones, 113; definition 
of, 123 ; in cord, 117. 

Association, 13, 246 ff., 261, 264 ff. ; 
laws of, 265 ff., 279 f. ; areas of, in 
cortex, 120; simultaneous, 264; 
successive, 264. 



Attention, definition of, 54, 68; func- 
tion of, 54; kinds of, 55 ff. ; span 
of, 65 f. ; active, 51, 60; passive, 
55 ff. ; secondary passive, 61 f. ; 
adaptability of, 295 ; in thought 
process, 302 ; rhythms of, 61 f. ; as 
influencing changes in consciousness, 
6 f . ; and fatigue, 64 ; and behavior, 
53 ff. ; fluctuations of, 69 ; and 
emotions, 80 ; and affection, 89 f . ; 
and instincts, 160 f. ; in habit forma- 
tion, 169 f. 

Attitudes, 306, 317, 323; bodily, in 
attention, 67 f. ; habitual, 180; 
of contemplation, 134; religious, 
103. 

Attributes of sensations, 193 f. 

Auditory sensations, igg f. 

Axone, 112; definition of, 122. 

Barker, L. F., hi. 

Behavior, 121; definition of, 19; 
guidance of, 16 f.; habitual, 165 ff. ; 
instinctive, 127 ff. ; reflex, 126 f. ; 
modification of, 26 ff. ; unlearned, 
37; and affection, 72 ff. ; and asso- 
ciation, 264 ff. ; and attention, 53, 
66 f . ; and consciousness, i ff. ; and 
emotion, 80, 95, f . ; and feelings, 
72 ff. ; and illusions, 219 f. ; 
and imagination, 227 ff . ; .and 
judgment, 307 ; and meaning, 303 ; 
and memory, 243 ff. ; and rea- 
soning, 307 ff . ; and thought pro- 
cesses, 298 ff. ; of animals, 32, 45, 
109, 243 f. 

Biographical materials^ in teaching, 
321. 

Blocking, of habitual behavior, 167; 
of instincts, 131, 136; of synapse, 

247 f- 
Boy Scout movement, 159. 
Brain, 114. 
Brightness, of visual sensations, 206; 

qualities, 194 f. 



331 



332 



INDEX 



Cajal, R., III. 

Calkins, Mary E., 2ig. 

Cell body, 112. 

Central nervous system, 114 ff., 123; 
functions of, 116 ff. 

Cerebrum, 114, 115, 118, 119; defini- 
tion of, 123. 

Cerebellum, definition of, 123. 

Child, imagination in, 235 ff. ; memory 
in, 257. 

Circular activity, 30. 

Clearness, as attribute of sensations, 
ig3 f., 2q6. 

Collecting instinct, 140. 

Color blindness, 204, 209. 

Color contrast, 207. 

Color qualities, 194 f. 

Color zones, of retina, 197 f. 

Combative instincts, 112, 156 f. 

Comic, instinctive appreciation of, 
135- 

Companionship, instinctive desire for, 
144. 

Comparison, step of, 310. 

Competition, instinctive basis of, 145. 

Complementary colors, 196, 207. 

Composition, teaching of, 173. 

Concept, 13, 306, 323; of method in 
habit-building, 183, 187 ; building 
of, 316. 

Concepts, as resources, 316 f. 

Conclusion, in syllogism, 309. 

Concrete imagery, 240. 

Conduct, and consciousness, i ff. ; and 
the feelings, 90 ff. 

Conduction, paths of, in, 116, 122, 
127. 

Consciousness, definition of, i ff. ; and 
memory, 244; elements of, 188 ff. ; 
and behavior, 189 ff. ; nature of, 19 ; 
function of, 2 ; and cortical activety, 
120; and habit, i6s f.; and instinct, 
106 f. ; and learning, 24 ff. ; selec- 
tive function of, 54. 

Consequences, theory of, in child dis- 
cipline, 153; in emotions, 97. 

Consonance, 209. 

Constructive instincts, 141. 

Contiguity, in association, 265, 279 f. 

Contrast, in association, 280; visual, 
195 f-_ 

Conversion, psychology of, 96. 



Cooperative instinct, 132, 145. 
Cortex, cerebral, 118, 119, 124; and 

consciousness, 120. 
Cortical localization, 124. 
"Cramming" in memorizing, 252. 
Cranial nerves, 115, 117, 123. 
Crisis, of thought, 17 f., 313, 323; 

definition of, 20. 
Curiosity, 92, 129; definition of, 51; 

nature of, 48. 

Deduction, 308. 

Deductive reasoning, 323. 

Defectives, attention in, 67. 

Definitions, development of, 316. 

Delusion, definition of, 281, 

Dendrite, definition, 122. 

Dermal sensations, 201 f. 

Development lesson, inductive, 309 ff. 

Devices, nature of, 170. 

Discipline, Spencer's doctrine of, 153. 

Dissonance, 209. 

Distortion, in memory, 254. 

Drill, in education, 169 f. 

Duration, of learning periods, 285 f. ; 

of sensations, 193, 206. 
Duty, ideal of, 162. 

Ear, 190. 

Economy, in learning, 283 ff . ; of con- 
ceptual behavior, 307. 
Ecstasy, emotion of, 134. 
Educabijity, as symptom of memory, 

243- 

Education, moral, 152, 153 ; and in- 
stincts, 149 ff. ; through drill, 169 f. 

EflSciency, and feeling, 75. 

Effort, in habit-building, 179. 

Elements, of consciousness, 189 f. 

Emotion, definition of, 84, 86. 

Emotional congruity, in association, 
273, 280. 

Emotions, and behavior, 80; and in- 
stincts, 78, 128; as complex feelings, 
76; characteristics of, 77 ; functions 
of, 96; in teaching, 100 ff.; of 
anger, 131 ; practical significance of, 
93 ff. ; value of, 94 f . 

Emulation, 14s ; instincts of, 133. 

Envy, instinctive basis of, 133. 

Equilibrium, sensations of, 200, 209. 

Exceptions, in habit-building, 171, 



INDEX 



333 



Experience, and learning, 25 f. ; as 
determining paths of conduction, 
hi; conditions of, 114; nature of, 
19; religious, g6. 

Eye, 190; adaptation of, 195 f. 

Facilitation, 127; nature of, 121. 

Facts, function of, in behavior, 199. 

Fatigue, 65, 69 ; in habit-building, 178 ; 
and attention, 64. 

Fear, 77, 142 f . ; in learning, loi. 

Feeling, as an ingredient of conscious- 
ness, 7; in instinctive behavior, 128, 
132, 160; and behavior, 72 ff. ; and 
habits, 166; significance of, 89 S. 

Fighting instinct, 131, 159. 

Fixed ideas, 281. 

Fluctuation of attention, 69. 

Focalization, definition of, 186; in 
habit-building, 168. 

Foreign language teaching, 175. 

Forgetting, function of, 258; laws of, 
253 ; rate of, 262. 

Form, perception of, 198. 

Formal discipline, 180 S., 259, 319 ff. 

Formal steps, of recitation, 309 ff. 

Franklin, B., 98. 

"Free ideas," in learning, 31 f.; defi- 
nition of, 35. 

Frequency, in association, 280; in 
recall, 269. 

Generalization, step of, 310. 
Geography, teaching of, 309 ff. 
"Good," criterion of, 75. 
Grades, 171. 
Gregarious instinct, 132. 
Grief, emotions of, 132. 
Groos, K., 41. 
Gustatory sensations, 200. 

Habit, 8 f., 151; and affection, 91 f. ; 
and apperception, 217 ; and instincts, 
165 f. ; limitations of, 184. 

Habit-building, 185 f. ; significance of, 
in education, 167 f. ; law of, 168 ff. 

Habits, instinctive repetition in forma- 
tion of, 141 ; adaptive nature of, 
166; nature of, 165 ff.; specific 
character of, 180; transference of, 
181. 

Hall, G. S., 42, 43. 



Hallucinations, 221 f., 225. 
Hate, emotions of, 132. 
Hearing, sensations of, 199 f. 
Hemispheres, cerebral, 114, 115. 
History, teaching of, 251, 313 f. 
"Homesickness," instinctive basis of, 

133- 
Humiliation, instinctive basis of, 132. 
Hypothesis, 312, 317, 324. 
Hysteria, 244. 

Idea, and ideal, 165. 

Ideal, definition of, 163. 

Ideals, nature of, i6i ; as agencies in 
transfer of training, 182 f. 

Ideas, "free," in learning, 31 f., 35. 

Identical elements, in transference of 
habits, 181. 

Illusions, 55; and hallucinations, 221; 
classes of, 222 f. ; visual, 219 f. 

Illustration, in teaching, 317. 

Image, 228; as conscious element, 
190 n. 

Imagery, 231 f.; types of, 235; con- 
crete, 233 ; symbolic, 233. 

Images, and meanings, 301 ; after, 196, 
208. 

Imaginal types, 235. 

Imagination, 12; definition, 218, 240; 
function of, 229; and behavior, 
227 ff. ; and learning, 315; educa- 
tional value of, 23s f . ; and emotions, 
83; limits of, 236. 

Impression, as factor in memory, 246 
f., 261, 268. 

Incentive, definition of, 69; nature of, 
60. 

Individualistic instincts, 131 f. ; value 
of, 142. 

Induction, 308. 

Inductive reasoning, 323. 

Inductive teaching, 308 ff., 323. 

Inhibition, definition of, 1 24 ; nature 
of, 121; of instinctive behavior, 151. 

Initiative, 37, 42, 92, 129; definition 
of, 35 ; nature of, 29 ; in habit- 
building, 112. 

Instinctive behavior, 9 f ., 26, 37 ff. ; 
definition of, 139; character of, 128. 

Instincts, adaptive, 128 ff. ; aesthetic, 
134 f . ; individualistic, 131 f., 142; 
modification of, 149 ff. ; nest build- 



334 



INDEX 



ing, 128; parental, 132; religious, 
134 f., 146 f.; sex, 132; social, 132, 
144 f . ; sublimation of, 159; table 
of, 137 ; value of, 140; and affection, 
91 f. ; and attention, 56 f. ; and edu- 
cation, 149 ff. ; and emotion, 78, 
128; and feeling, 128; and habits, 
i6s f. 

Intelligence, function of, 28. 

Intensity, as attribute of sensations, 
193, 206. 

Interest, as influencing conscious 
changes, 6 f. 

Interference, in habit-building, 174 f. ; 
in memory, 288 f. 

Introspection, definition of, 205. 

Involuntary action, 122. 

Involuntary attention, 55 fi. 

Jaivtes, W., 79, 248, 273. 

Jealousy, instinctive basis of, 132, 133. 

JfENNINGS, H. S., 108. 

Judgment, 13 f., 307 ; definition of, 323. 

Kinaesthetic sensations, 202 f. 
Knowledge, and morality, 100, 153. 

Laboratory, function of, 315. 

Labyrinth, in animal experiments, 27. 

Lange, C, 79. 

Language, training in, 171. 

Law, definition of, 318. 

Learning, 24 ff., 27, 30, 33, 39, 129; 
and attention, 59 f . ; and imagina- 
tion, 315; in animals, 26 f., 32, 45; 
definition of, 35 ; economy in, 283 
ff. ; length of periods of, 285 f. ; rate 
of, 292 ; rules for, 293 ff. ; through 
trial and error, 32 ; through curi- 
osity, 49 ; through play, 41 ff. 

Lesson, assignment of, 314; inductive 
development, 309 ff. 

Localization, cortical, 124. 

Loyalty, instinctive basis of, 133. 

Major premise, in reasoning, 308. 
Marks, as incentives, 171. 
Maze, in animal experiments, 27. 
Meaning, 11, 289, 294, 313; definition 

of, 322 ; as conscious element, 190 n. 
Meanings, and adjustment, 214; and 

affection, 7 ; and attention, 66 ; and 



association, 272; and perception, 
213; and thought processes, 300 ff. ; 
as individual, 215; development of, 
314 f. ; variations in, 302 f. ; and 
behavior, 303 ; and symbols, 305 ; 
and quaUties, 304 f. 

Medulla, 114. 

Memorizing, methods of, 283 ff. 

Memory, 12 f . ; definition of, 260; 
distortion of, 254 f . ; falsification of, 
262 ; improvement of, 256 f., 258 f. ; 
loss of, 247 ; tests of, 249 ff., 261 ; 
and behavior, 243 ff. 

Mental imagery, 231 f. 

Migratory instincts, 92. 

Mind, as synonymous with conscious- 
ness, I. 

Minor premise, in reasoning, 308. 

Mnemonic devices, 290 ff., 295. 

Montessori method, 169. 

Mood, nature of, 84 f . ; definition of, 
86. 

Moods, educational significance of, 
103 f. 

Moral education, 152, 174, 185 f. 

Morality, and knowledge, 100. 

Motivation, in habit-building, 172; 
in higher thought processes, 313. 

Motive, definition of, 69; nature of, 
60. 

Motives, "natural," 172. 

Motor areas, 118, 119. 

Motor neurones, 113, 127; definition 
of, 123. 

Muscular sensations, 202 f. 

Museum, educational use of, 47. 

Needs, as determining behavior, 37. 
Nerves, cranial, 115, 117, 123; spinal, 
^ IIS, 117- 
Nervous system, as organ of behavior, 

106 f. ; plasticity of, 247 ; structure 

of, 108 ff. 
Neurone, definition of, 122; nature of, 

112. 
Neurones, functions of, 121; classes 

of, 113 f . ; in cortex, 118. 
Noise, sensations of, 199, 208. 

Objective teaching, 216, 317. 
Observation, and memory, 253 f. 
Olfactory sensations, 200 T." 



INDEX 



335 



Organic sensations, 203, 209. 
Organism, definition of, 19. 
Organization, in higher thought pro- 
cesses, 275, 281, 314. 
Organs of sensations, 190. 

Pain, 74, 20I ; and learning, 60. 

Parental instincts, 132. 

"Part" method in memorizing, 283 f., 

295- 

Passive attention, 55 f. ; definition of, 
68; laws of, 56 f. ; significance of, 
57 f.; and instincts, 160; and 
higher thought processes, 302. 

Perception, 11, 15, 191, 206; of form, 
198; and behavior, 213 S.; and 
imagination, 227. 

Perceptions, true and false, 218 flf. 

Pictures, in teaching, 47, 317. 

Pitch, as tonal quality, 208. 

Pity, emotion of, 134. 

Plateau, in habit-building, 175 ff., 187. 

Play, 92, 130; as instinctive, 40; 
definition of, 50; limitations of, 
44 f. ; organization of, 46 f. ; super- 
vision of, 158; theories of, 41 f. ; 
value of, 41. 

Playgrounds, 158. 

Pleasantness, 90 fif., 151 ; as affective 
quality, 74; fxmction of, 74; in 
learning, 154. 

Practice curve, in habit-building, 175 f., 
186. 

Predatory instinct, 131 ; use of, 143 f. 

Prejudice, 268, 278 f. ; in reasoning, 
308. 

Preparation, step of, 309. 

Presentation, step of, 309. 

Pressure, sensations of, 201. 

Pride, feeling of, 132. 

Primacy, as law of association, 280. 

Problem, 18; importance of , in higher 
thought processes, 312. 

Productive imagination, 230, 240. 

Promptness, habits of, 181 f. 

Propensity, of habits, 166, 186. 

Psychology, definition of, i f . ; prob- 
lem of, 18 f. ; of animals, 26, 27, 32, 
45, 60, 243; of conversion, 96; of 
play, 40, 50. 

Pugnacity, instincts of, 142. 

Punishment, 153. 



"Pure" sensation, igi. 
Purpose, 5 f., 54, 280. 
Puzzle box, in animal experimeats, 
32. 

Quality, as attribute of sensations, 193, 
206 ; and meaning, 304 f. 

Rage, emotion of, 132. 

Rapidity, in learning, 179, 292, 293, 

296. 
Rapture, emotion of, 135. 
Reading, imagery in, 234. 
Reasoning, 14 f.; and behavior, 307 

ff. ; definition of, 323 ; training of, 

319 ff. 
Recall, 244, 293, 295 ; and recognition, 

245 ; importance of, in memorizing, 

286 f. 
Recency, in association, 280. 
Recitation, function of, 287 f. 
Recognition, 244, 260 ; and recall, 245 ; 

method of, in testing memory, 250. 
Recollection, 245, 260. 
Reconstruction, method of, in testing 

memory, 251. 
Reflex behavior, 9, 126 f., 128, 138. 
Religious education, 147 ; emotional 

element in, 102 f . ; imagination in, 

238. 
Religious experience, 96; instinctive 

basis of, 134 f., 146 f. 
Remorse, emotion of, 133. 
Repetition, instinctive, 30, 129, 141; 

and attention, 58; and memory, 

248; and habit, 169 f. 
Reproductive imagination, 230, 240. 
Resentment, instinctive basis of, 156. 
Resources, concepts as, 316, 321. 
Retained members, as method of test- 
ing memory, 249. 
Retention, 260. 
Retentivity, 246 f., 252 f. 
Retina, zones of, 197 f. 
Retraction, instincts of, 136, 142. 
Reverence, instinctive basis of, 134. 
Rhythm, and attention, 58 f., 61 f. ; 

instinctive basis of, 134. 
Right associates, as method of testing 

memory, 250. 
Rivalry, instinctive basis of, 132, 145. 
Rote learning, 261, 289 f. 



336 



INDEX 



Saturation, of color sensations, igs, 207. 

Saving method, in testing memory, 249. 

Secondary passive attention, 61, 69. 

Self-assertive instincts, 131. 

Self-consciousness, 203. 

Sensation, 10 f., 15; and behavior, 
189 £f. ; and perception, 213 ; defini- 
tion of, 191, 205 ; as conscious ele- 
ment, 189 S. ; attributes of, 193 f. 

Sensations, organs of, 190; auditory, 
199 f . ; classes of, 194 fif. ; dermal, 
201 f . ; gustatory, 200 f . ; kinaes- 
thetic, 202 ; olfactory, 200 f . ; 
organic, 79, 203, 209 ; visual, 194 £f. 

Sense organ, definition of, 122. 

Sense training, 204 f. 

Sensori-motor activity, 114, 123, 192. 

Sensory areas, 118, 119. 

Sensory defects, 203 f. 

Sensory neurones, 113, 123. 

Sentiments, nature of, 135. 

Sex instincts, 132. 

Shame, feeling of, 132. 

Similarity, in association, 265, 280. 

Simultaneous associations, 279. 

Situation, 18, 24 ; definition of, 20 ; as 
arousing emotions, 77, 82. 

Smell, sensations of, 200 f. 

Sociability, instinctive basis of, 133. 

Social instincts, 132, 144. 

Spelling, teaching of, 170 f. 

Spencer, H., 153. 

Spinal cord, 114 f. ; functions of, 116 f. 

Stereoscope, educational use of, 47. 

Strain, sensations of, 202. 

Study, methods of, 253 f . ; periods, 294. 

Subjugation, instincts of, 134. 

Sublimation, of instincts, 159. 

Successive associations, 279. 

Suggestion, as distorting memory, 256. 

Syllogism, 307 f. 

Symbolic imagery, 233, 240. 

Symbolic thinking, 305 f . 

Symbols, and meanings, 305. 

Sympathetic nervous system, 114. 

Sympathy, emotion of, 134. 

Synapse, 127; definition of, 122; 
nature of, 112; blocking of, 247 f. ; 
and association, 247. 

Tardiness, i8i f. 

Taste, sensations of, 200. 



Teaching, affective element in, 98 ff. ; 
assignment in, 314; emotional ele- 
ment in, 100 ff., 104 ; illustration in, 
317; inductive, 308 ff. ; objective, 
216; through biographical materials, 
321. 

Temperament, nature of, 85 ; definition 
of, 86. 

Temperature, sensations of, 201. 

Tests, of memory, 249 ff., 261. 

Thinking, definition of, 322. 

Thomson, W., 98. 

Thorndike, E. L., 32. 

Thought, and behavior, 298 ff. ; con- 
fusion of, in emotions, 81, 94. 

Thought crisis, 17 f., 20, 313, 323. 

Timbre, definition of, 288. 

TiTCHENER, E. B., 220. 

Tonal deafness, 204. 

Tonal sensations, 199. 

Tone, definition of, 208. 

Training, of imagination, 235 ; of 
senses, 204 f. ; of reasoning, 319 fi. 

Truancy, 92. 

Transference, of habits, i8r. 

Trial and error, 26 ff., 34, 35, 169, 321. 

Unpleasantness, 74, 151, 154 {.; in 
moral education, 152. 

Value, and affection, 7 ; and attention, 
55 ; and emotions, 94 ; of conscious- 
ness, 20; of instincts, 140 ff.; of 
imagination, 235 ff. 

Vanity, feeling, of, 132. 

Veneration, instinctive basis of, 134. 

Vexation, emotions of, 136. 

Visual defects, 203 f . 

Visual sensations, 194 ff. 

Vividness, as factor in recall, 269. 

"Warming up" period, 64, 291 f. 
Washbijrn, Margaret F., 27, 32. 
"Whole" method of memorizing, 293, 

29s, 283 f. 
"WiU to do," 174. 
Work, definition of, 51; conditions of 

effective, 64 f . 
WuNDT, W., 220. 

Yerkes, R. M 27. 

ZoUner illusion, 219. 



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